The fate of the Orthodox Church under the Golden Horde. The Russian Church during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Political system and governance in the Russian principalities of the XIV-XV centuries. The beginning of the unification of Russian lands. Feudal hierarchy system
“The history of World War II is being rewritten today methodically and shamelessly. Dr. Goebbels would look at today's Western historians with admiration and envy. The students clearly outperformed the teacher. In the United States and European countries, it has already been possible to convince a significant part of the population that although the war against the Third Reich was fought in Russia, it was a secondary front.
So far, modern Hollywood films about the war do not show how the American Rangers planted the Stars and Stripes flag over the Reichstag, but, apparently, this is a matter of the near future. Obama stated that his grandfather liberated Auschwitz...”
Part 1. Stalingrad and El Alamein. Who broke the war machine of the Third Reich.
DISCIPLES OF DOCTOR GOEBBELS
Russian Head of State Vladimir Putin was not invited to the celebration of the 75th anniversary of the Allied landings in Normandy. But at the same time, the German Chancellor was invited to the celebration. The commemorative medal, issued for the 75th anniversary of the victory, depicts the flags of the three states that defeated Nazi Germany - the USA, Great Britain and France. There is no flag of the Soviet Union or Russia on the medal. Apparently, in the modern Western interpretation of the history of World War II, France, together with Great Britain and the United States, made a decisive contribution to the victory over the Third Reich. It is impossible not to recall the reaction of Keitel, who, seeing a French general among the representatives of the Allied powers accepting the surrender of the Third Reich, asked with sincere amazement: “What? And these also defeated us?” It is necessary to talk about France's participation in the war separately, remembering, for example, how many French fought in the Free French of General De Gaulle, in the Resistance movement, and how many on the side of Hitler, in parts of the Vichy regime, in the SS Charlemagne division and other units shoulder shoulder to shoulder with the Wehrmacht soldiers. After all, more than 20 thousand French soldiers were in Soviet captivity alone. On the Borodino field in the fall of 1941, the Siberians of Polosin’s division defeated the French legion; the French SS men were among the last defenders of the Reichstag. Separately, we can recall how, “suffering unbearably” from the Boche occupation in beautiful Paris, where all the cafes, theaters and variety shows worked, new models of fashionable hats and perfumes were produced, the French worked disciplinedly at the Renault factories, regularly supplying all four years of the war Germany military equipment.
It would be good for Mr. Macron to remember that Churchill and Roosevelt, being well aware of the actions of the collaborationist Vichy regime on the side of Germany during the war, proposed that France, like Germany, be included in the occupation zone. And only Joseph Stalin, who supported De Gaulle, insisted that France be included in the victorious countries. And the “last great Frenchman” General De Gaulle remembered this well. During his visit to Russia, De Gaulle, visiting Stalingrad and paying tribute to the city’s defenders, said: “The French know that it was Soviet Russia that played the main role in their liberation.”
But times have changed, the emergence of a new De Gaulle in modern France is impossible. And under no circumstances will their strict masters allow the various Macrons and Hollanders to remember that France owes it only to the goodwill of the head of the Soviet state that it not only became one of the winning countries, but also received a seat in the UN Security Council.
It is not surprising that there is no flag of the Soviet Union on the commemorative medal. After all, according to the new Western version of the history of World War II, the USSR had the most minimal connection to the victory over the Third Reich. And how did the Russians fight, what do some battles in Stalingrad mean in the new history that some battles in Stalingrad are made up in the West in comparison with the “epic battle” of El Alamein. In the Western version, it was after the victory at El Alamein that a radical turning point in the war occurred.
The history of World War II is being rewritten today methodically and shamelessly. Dr. Goebbels would look at today's Western historians with admiration and envy. The students clearly outperformed the teacher. In the United States and European countries, it has already been possible to convince a significant part of the population that although the war against the Third Reich was fought in Russia, it was a secondary front. The main events took place on the Western Front. England and the USA, as it turned out, together with France (!) bore the brunt of the war on their shoulders. It was they who, having defeated Nazi Germany and its allies in decisive battles, crushed the Third Reich and liberated Europe. So far, modern Hollywood films about the war do not show how the American Rangers planted the Stars and Stripes flag over the Reichstag, but, apparently, this is a matter of the near future. Obama stated that his grandfather liberated Auschwitz.
AT THE FRONT FROM THE POLAR REGION TO THE CAUCASUS...
After the end of World War II, when it was not yet customary to rewrite history in the style of Dr. Goebbels, all scientists in the West recognized that 70 to 80% of the losses of the German armed forces occurred on the Eastern Front. According to official data based on German sources, the Third Reich lost 507 German divisions on the Eastern Front and 100 divisions of Germany's allies were completely defeated. On the Eastern Front, the bulk of German military equipment was also destroyed - up to 75 percent of the total losses of tanks and assault guns, over 75 percent of all aviation losses, and 74 percent of the total losses of artillery pieces. On the Soviet-German front, from 180 to 270 enemy divisions constantly fought against us simultaneously. Against our allies - from 9 to 73 divisions during the German offensive in the Ardennes - the most serious, but short-lived tension of the struggle on the Western Front. Before the Allied landings in Normandy, 20 times more German troops acted against Soviet troops than against all allies in the anti-Hitler coalition.
And this is not surprising. The length of the Soviet-German front ranged from 2500 to 6200 (!) km at different times of the war. And the maximum length of the Western Front is from 640 to 800 km. Imagine a huge front from the Arctic and the Baltic to the Crimea and the Caucasus, on which fierce battles take place every day for 1418 days and nights.
On the Soviet-German front at various stages of the war, from 8 million to 12.8 million people, from 84 thousand to 163 thousand guns and mortars, from 5.7 thousand to 20 thousand tanks and self-propelled guns operated on both sides (assault guns), from 6.5 thousand to 18.8 thousand aircraft. Today it is impossible for any person to even mentally imagine such a number of soldiers of active armies, a colossal amount of armored vehicles, guns, and aircraft.
Such a truly titanic intense struggle was the 4-year confrontation on the Soviet-German front between the Third Reich and the Soviet Union. And most of this time we fought the war machine of the Third Reich one on one.
“PINSTIT” OR “TURN OF DESTINY IN THE SECOND WORLD WAR”?
But today in the West they say that it turns out that the turning point of the Second World War was the Battle of El Alamein, in which the British defeated German and Italian troops. It turns out that it was near El Alamein, and not in Stalingrad and the Kursk Bulge, that the decisive blow was struck that broke the military power of the Third Reich.
Well, let's compare.
El Alamein. The battle lasted from October 23 to November 5, 1942. Opponent forces. German-Italian group 115 thousand, British 220 thousand. The total losses of German-Italian troops at El Alamein, according to various estimates, 30-55 thousand people. killed, wounded, captured. The British - about 13 thousand killed, wounded, missing. Less than 1 thousand tanks and 200 aircraft were lost on both sides.
But in order to imagine why the battle of El Alamein is considered the greatest victory in the West, we must remember how events developed before it.
In December 1940, Italy, an ally of Nazi Germany, was on the verge of complete collapse, having suffered a series of defeats in North Africa in Libya. Mussolini begs Hitler for help. Only two German divisions, led by General Erwin Rommel, land in Libya. Let us remember - there are only two Wehrmacht divisions. Without waiting for all forces to land, Rommel rushes on the offensive. The defeat of the British was lightning fast and crushing. The British, in panic, not only retreated, but literally fled at breakneck speed. This is despite the fact that the British had an almost fourfold superiority over the German-Italian troops. In 5 months, Rommel liberated Libya, drove the British to the borders of Egypt, and only the lack of fuel and other material resources stopped the German offensive. The British, having received a respite, bring up fresh forces, but Rommel again utterly defeats the enemy and storms the British stronghold in northern Africa - the fortress of Tobruk. And this despite the fact that the Tobruk garrison outnumbered the Germans besieging the fortress. But the British, without trying to make a breakthrough, raised a white flag, and the Germans took 33 thousand prisoners. But most importantly, there are numerous warehouses with food, gasoline, uniforms and ammunition, many guns, vehicles and tanks.
Rommel got rich spoils in Tobruk and continues his offensive. Rommel's tanks are moving towards Alexandria and Cairo, located 100 km from the Nile Delta, and the widespread flight of the British administration begins.
It should be noted that throughout the entire campaign, Rommel’s corps was self-sufficient, fighting with trophies captured from the enemy. Rommel repeatedly begged Hitler to increase the supply of fuel and ammunition, and asked to send reinforcements to victoriously complete the campaign in North Africa. But all requests were refused. Despite this, Rommel consistently achieves victories, and his enemies and allies respectfully call him the “Desert Fox.”
Rommel won victories without receiving reinforcements from Germany not because Hitler’s headquarters forgot about North Africa. But parts of the German corps, already formed and prepared specifically for fighting in Africa, were hastily transferred to the Eastern Front. Instead of coming to Rommel's aid, the troops trained to fight in the Libyan desert ended up in the Russian snow. German tanks and armored personnel carriers, painted sand, took part in the Battle of Moscow.
It should be noted that the bulk of Rommel’s troops were Italians. It is no secret that the warlike spirit and fighting qualities of the Italians could not be compared with the fighting qualities of the German soldier. One can only imagine how events would have developed in North Africa if Rommel had had an entire corps of German troops at his disposal. In addition, the Desert Fox became seriously ill and was evacuated to Germany for treatment. And then, having managed to concentrate significant forces, with the help of new American technology that had arrived in Africa, the British generals were finally able to defeat the Germans and Italians at El Alamein.
There is every reason to claim that the Battle of Moscow saved the British from complete defeat in North Africa. Keitel wrote with regret that the Germans were defeated at El Alamein only because, due to the gigantic war with Russia, they simply did not have enough strength for local “peripheral” theaters of military operations. Rommel himself explained the reasons for the defeat in the same way: “In Berlin, the campaign in North Africa was of secondary importance, and neither Hitler nor the General Staff took it particularly seriously.” Indeed, Hitler understood very well that the fate of the war was being decided not in North Africa, but on the Eastern Front.
It must also be said that our allies in the anti-Hitler coalition understood this very well. When, instead of opening a second front in Europe, they landed additional troops in North Africa in November 1942, US Army Chief of Staff Army General (1944) J. Marshall wrote: “These actions will not force Hitler to turn his face south. We assumed that he would be firmly stuck in Russia.”
Hitler was indeed firmly stuck in Russia. German troops were ground down in the Battle of Stalingrad, where, in the opinion of the Fuhrer, the fate of the war was decided. And Hitler was right. In this unprecedentedly tense battle, the outcome of the entire Second World War was decided; German troops sought to cut the vital transport artery of the Soviet Union - the route along the Volga, which connected the central part of the USSR with the southern regions of the country, to reach the Caucasus, to capture oil-bearing areas in Grozny and Baku, in Astrakhan. If Operation Blau had ended with the success of the German troops, then the USSR would have been cut off from Caspian oil, and in the “war of engines” this would have meant that without the “blood of war” - fuel, Soviet tanks and planes would have stopped. The Caucasus would have been lost, and in this case Turkey would have entered the war against the Soviet Union in the south, and Japan in the Far East. Both Istanbul and Tokyo were waiting for the outcome of the great confrontation on the Volga in order to make the final decision to enter the war on the side of the Third Reich.
At that time, Winston Churchill, well aware of the modest scale of the Allied operations in North Africa, admitted: “All our military operations are carried out on a very small scale compared to the enormous resources of England and the United States, and even more so compared to the gigantic efforts of Russia.” Churchill openly called the battles for El Alamein a “pinprick.”
So, the battle of El Alamein, in which 115 thousand Germans and Italians took part against 220 thousand British, lasted two weeks.
STALINGRAD
The Battle of Stalingrad lasted from August-September 1942 to February 1943. As a result, a 330,000-strong group of selected German troops was surrounded and destroyed.
The 6th army of Paulus was the real elite of the Wehrmacht, entered Paris, surrounded the British at Dunkirk. Only the Fuhrer's order to stop the tanks made it possible to evacuate the British Expeditionary Force and saved the British from complete disaster. The full motives for this decision of the Fuhrer can be revealed after Great Britain removes secrecy from the documents about the visit to England of Hermann Hess. But these documents are classified for another 100 years.
The 6th Army, under the command of Friedrich Paulus, Hitler's favorite, took part in the conquest of France and Belgium, Greece and Yugoslavia. It was the elite divisions of the 6th Army that marched victoriously under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. Paulus's soldiers and officers fought together for two years, all units and units of the army were very united, friendly, and interacted well with each other. The soldiers and officers of the 6th German Army had extensive combat experience and were well trained and prepared.
In terms of scale and ferocity, the world does not know a battle equal to the Battle of Stalingrad. The whole world waited with intense attention for the outcome of the battle on the banks of the Russian river. British military intelligence reports in October 1942 noted that “Stalingrad had become almost an obsession” that captured the attention of the entire society. And the Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong wrote at the time: “These days, news of every defeat and victory in the city captures the hearts of millions of people, driving them to despair and delight.”
For two hundred days and nights, more than two million soldiers from both sides fought on the banks of the Volga, showing unprecedented tenacity.
To this day, Wehrmacht veterans who survived this terrible battle cannot understand how, having an overwhelming numerical superiority, complete air supremacy, and an overwhelming advantage in artillery and tanks over the soldiers of the 62nd Army defending Stalingrad, they were never able to overcome the last hundred meters to the Volga bank. And there were days when the defenders of Stalingrad held only islands of land on the Volga bank, and the Germans had to go the last hundreds of meters to completely capture the city.
But the Germans also fought with incredible tenacity, trying to break through to the Volga at any cost, and then, being surrounded, they did not give up, but fought with iron steadfastness until the last opportunity. It can rightfully be said that except for the German and Russian soldiers, no one else could have fought in such conditions with such tenacity and courage. But Russian strength broke the Teutonic force.
To more fully imagine the scale of the battles, let's compare the losses in Stalingrad and El Alamein. 30-50 thousand Germans and Italians lost by Hitler and Mussolini at El Alamein and 1.5 million lost in the Battle of Stalingrad (900 thousand Germans and 600 thousand Hungarians, Italians, Romanians, Croats). Our losses during this time were very heavy - 1 million 130 thousand killed and wounded. But only in the “Stalingrad cauldron” were 22 selected, best divisions of the Wehrmacht - 330,000 soldiers and officers - surrounded, completely destroyed and captured. In total, during this unprecedented battle, the center of which was Stalingrad, Germany and its allies lost over 1.5 million soldiers and officers. In addition to the famous German 6th Field Army and 4th Tank Army, the 3rd and 4th Romanian and 8th Italian Armies, the 2nd Hungarian Army, and several operational groups of German troops were completely defeated. Romanian losses amounted to 159 thousand killed and missing. In the 8th Italian Army, 44 thousand soldiers and officers died, and almost 50 thousand surrendered. The 2nd Hungarian Army, numbering 200 thousand soldiers, lost only 120 thousand killed.
Let's compare the scale of the battles once again. At Stalingrad, at the time of the offensive, about 1 million soldiers, equipped with 15 thousand guns and rocket launchers, took part on our side. They were also opposed by a million-strong German-Romanian group, which had more than 10 thousand guns and large-caliber mortars. At El Alamein, 220 thousand British, French and Greeks with 2359 guns fought against 115 thousand Germans and Italians armed with 1219 artillery barrels.
In total, from July 1942 to February 1943, the Italian-German bloc lost no more than 40 thousand people killed and wounded in North Africa.
It is clear to any sane person that the scale of the Battle of Stalingrad and the battle of El Alamein are incomparable.
“WE ARE WAITING FOR THE VICTORY OF THE RED ARMY AT STALINGRAD, AS THE BEGINNING OF VICTORY IN THE WHOLE SECOND WORLD WAR”
Neither Churchill nor Roosevelt would have thought of comparing El Alamein and Stalingrad in 1943. Moreover, call the victory at El Alamein “a turn of fate in the Second World War.” Churchill wrote to Stalin on March 11, 1943: “The scale of these operations is small in comparison with the enormous operations that you are leading.”
And here is what F.D. wrote in his letter to Stalingrad. Roosevelt: “On behalf of the people of the United States of America, I present this certificate to the city of Stalingrad to commemorate our admiration for its valiant defenders, whose courage, fortitude and selflessness during the siege from September 13, 1942 to January 31, 1943 will forever inspire the hearts of all free of people".
After Stalingrad, three days of mourning were declared in Germany. What the battle on the Volga meant for the Germans, writes Lieutenant General Vsetfal: “The defeat at Stalingrad horrified both the German people and their army. Never before in the entire history of Germany has there been such a terrible death of so many troops.”
General Hans Doerr acknowledged that “Stalingrad was the turning point of the Second World War. For Germany, the battle of Stalingrad was the worst defeat in its history, for Russia - its greatest victory. At Poltava (1709) Russia achieved the right to be called a great European power. Stalingrad was the beginning of its transformation into one of the two greatest world powers."
The famous French anti-fascist writer Jean-Richard Bloch addressed his compatriots in February 1943: “Listen, Parisians! The first three divisions that invaded Paris in June 1940, the three divisions that, at the invitation of the French General Denz, desecrated our capital, these three divisions - the hundredth, one hundred and thirteenth and two hundred and ninety-fifth - no longer exist! They were destroyed at Stalingrad: the Russians avenged Paris. The Russians are taking revenge for France!
In France, the name Stalingrad is immortalized in the names of streets and squares. In Paris, a square, a boulevard and a metro station bear the name of Stalingrad. There are avenues and streets of Stalingrad in four other cities in France and in the Belgian capital Brussels, as well as in Bologna, Italy. The streets of Stalingrad remained in the cities of Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.
After the victory in Stalingrad, the King of Great Britain sent a sword as a gift to the city, on the blade of which the inscription in Russian and English was engraved: “To the citizens of Stalingrad, strong as steel, from King George VI as a sign of the deep admiration of the British people.”
During the Battle of Stalingrad, US President Franklin Roosevelt wrote to Stalin: “We are watching the battle of Stalingrad with tension and hope. We are waiting for the Victory of the Red Army at Stalingrad, as the beginning of the Victory in the entire Second World War.” After the defeat of the German troops, in his telegrams, Roosevelt congratulated him on the victory in the “immortal battle of Stalingrad,” called the battle for the city an “epic struggle,” and expressed admiration for the “magnificent, unsurpassed in history victories” of the Red Army over the “powerful enemy.”
Of course, in 1945, no one in the United States or Europe could even think of comparing El Alamein with Stalingrad. But times have changed. In 1991, the United States issued a medal in honor of victory in the Cold War. The Soviet Union was destroyed, our geopolitical opponents largely succeeded in realizing Hitler’s plans. Ukraine, Belarus, the republics of Transcaucasia, and Central Asia were torn away from Russia. The Russians have become the largest divided people in the world. In the West, they became convinced that Russia, plundered and plundered by the oligarchs, from which hundreds of billions of money, raw materials, technologies, and talented scientists were exported, would never be able to rise again. But Russia returned to history. He returned to his home in Crimea, the sacred Russian city of Sevastopol. The revival of our Armed Forces came as a shock to all of Russia’s “sworn friends.” This cooled down many hotheads and temporarily delayed the start of a full-scale Third World War. Although the first salvos of this war are heard in Donbass and Syria. But for now it is carried out primarily with information weapons. The task of all information and psychological operations is to suppress the will and morale of the enemy. And falsification of history, an attempt to distort the role of the Soviet Union in the victory over Nazism is one of the most important information and psychological operations of the Third World War.
In the second part, we will compare the scale of Operation Overlord, the Allied landing in Normandy, the 75th anniversary of which is being celebrated in the West these days, with the events that were taking place at the same time on the Soviet-German front. Let us remember why, after the operation of German troops in the Ardennes, Winston Churchill asked Joseph Stalin that the Red Army go on the offensive on the Soviet-German front as soon as possible.
It must be admitted that we ourselves are to blame for the fact that in the West they are so brazenly and unscrupulously rewriting the history of the Second World War. We will talk about this and how to resist today’s falsifiers of history and the unprecedented flow of lies in the near future.
To be continued...
2 ^ NOYOSHI ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTE OF RUSSIAN HISTORY
As a manuscript
SOCHNEV Yuri Vyacheslavovich
THE RUSSIAN CHURCH AND THE GOLDEN HORDE
Specialty 07.00.02 - Domestic history
MOSCOW 1993
The work was carried out at the center “History of the Peoples of Russia and Interethnic Relations” of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Scientific supervisor - Doctor of Historical Sciences
EGOROV V. L.
Official opponents -
Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Y. II. SHCHAPOV,
candidate of historical spider ARAPOV D. 10.
The leading organization is Moscow Pedagogical State University. P.I. Lenin.
The defense will take place in 1993 in ^U
hours at a meeting of the specialized council D 002.33.0 £ for the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences at the Institute of Russian History RAI at the address:
117036, Moscow, st. Dm. Ulyanova, 19.
The dissertation can be found in the research office of the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Scientific secretary of the specialized council, candidate of historical sciences
JACKSON T. N
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK
The relevance of research. For the history of Russia, the Mongol conquest is one of the most dramatic and significant events. The defeat of the Russian lands by Batu's troops was only the beginning of a long and difficult period of domination by the conquerors. By now, the history of Mongol rule in Rus' has been quite well studied. There is significant scientific literature devoted to clarifying the nature of the relationship between Russian princes and Mongol rulers, the international position of Russian principalities, and the political struggle in North-Eastern Rus' in the second half. Х111 - Х1У" centuries. But the study of most problems will not be complete if you do not pay attention to the participation in socio-political, economic and other processes of the church organization, which was the most important part of medieval Russian society. Thanks to the efforts of many historians, it became possible to imagine the general evolution of Russian church as a state institution, to determine the most important moments^ of its political history in the pre-Mongol and post-Mongol periods.But the position of the church during the rule of warlike nomads over Russia, its relationship with the Mongol khans remain poorly understood and represent significant gaps among other issues of Russian history in period of the Horde yoke. Many specific aspects of the problem appear unclear, in addition, there are different points of view on the issues under study in pre-revolutionary historiography and historiography of the Soviet era, which creates difficulties for the correct interpretation of events. Therefore, at the present time, a time when the interest of historians has increased significantly and the public towards religious structures and their significance for national culture and statehood, an urgent need arose for a special study of church-Horde relations.
Purpose and objectives of the study. The main goal of this dissertation is to, based on materials from comprehensively involved primary sources and historical literature, clarify the role of the Orthodox Church in the difficult period of foreign domination, and more clearly determine its place in the system of Russian-Horde relations.
To achieve this goal, the work provides for solving the following tasks:
1. Study the evolution of Mongolian policy towards the Russian church and its main content at different stages.
2. Determine the scope of privileges granted to the Russian clergy by grants from the Mongol khans, and the resulting changes in the position of the church.
3. To trace the formation and development of specific church-Horde ties, taking into account changes in government and ideological life of the Golden Horde, economic and political-administrative processes in the Russian principalities, as well as reforms in the church itself.
4. Consider the political positions of the church in relation to the Mongols and their relationship with the foreign policy objectives of the Russian state.
It should be noted that the dissertation does not fully examine the position of the church in the 111th - 19th centuries, since it was determined not only by the policies of the conquerors, but also by the attitude towards the spiritual organization of the princes, and the current legislation in Rus'. There is also no special task to study church-secular relations at the specified time. These problems are addressed in those aspects that are necessary for a complete understanding of the contacts between the church and the Mongol authorities.
Your chronological research covers the period from the creation of the Golden Horde state and the establishment of vassal relations between the Russian princes and the seventies of the 18th century, the time of the beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde and the open national liberation struggle of the Russian people led by the Moscow prince. It was at this time, when, due to the state of the Golden Horde state, an active struggle against Mongol domination became possible, the church sanctified and in every possible way supported such a struggle, Church-Horde ties practically ceased, and the few contacts no longer had independent significance. The Church consistently followed the Horde policy of the Moscow prince. As for the Golden Horde khans, they could not pursue the same policy both in relation to Rus' as a whole and in relation to the church. Activities of khans on religious issues after the 70s. 19th century was a pale repetition of the policies of its powerful predecessors, which, however, did not have tangible results.
The methodological basis of the dissertation is the dialectical-materialistic concept of the history of society and the main principle of scientific research arising from it - historicism, understanding of history.
ric source, as a reflection of reality and its social conditioning.
The research methodology is determined by the objectives of a comprehensive study of church-Horde relations. The outlined range of issues is considered in conjunction with all existing and sometimes contradictory facts and trends. The combination of “formal” and “ideological” analysis of comprehensively involved primary sources of the period under study, the separation of significant and typical phenomena from random and secondary ones, as well as the use of the comparative historical method are fundamental in this work.
Scientific? novelty of the research. The dissertation is devoted to the development of a topic that has been little studied in domestic historical science, and which still remains one of the controversial ones. In foreign historiography, this topic also did not become the subject of special study. In the dissertation under review, for the first time, based on the possible maximum possible involvement of sources, the specific course of relations between the Russian church and the Mongolian authorities is examined, the degree of influence of Mongolian awards on the position of the clergy in the structure of Russian society is determined, the evolution of the confessional policy of the Golden Horde khans is traced, and its content is revealed at each stage. The new conclusions obtained make it possible not only to fill the existing gaps in the study of the history of the Russian church and the Golden Horde state, but also to refute some erroneous ideas of previous historiography. New observations are also contained in the study of the process of participation of the church and the Orthodox clergy in the foreign policy program of the Russian state during the period of Mongol domination. In addition, the consideration of problems in the work is closely related to a wide range of issues in the history of both Russia and the Golden Horde.
Practical significance of the work. The dissertation materials can be used in further study of Russian history of the 1111th - 19th centuries, problems of church history and the Golden Horde state, when writing textbooks and popular science works, in the educational process - when reading the relevant sections of lecture courses on the history of Russia, special courses and special seminars on the history of the Russian church and the history of the Golden Horde.
Approbation of the work: the dissertation was discussed at meetings of the center "History of the Peoples of Russia and Interethnic Relations" of the Institute
Russian history of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the main provisions of the work are reflected in the author’s scientific publications. Based on the research materials, reports and messages were also made at readings in memory of Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences S.I. Arkhangelsky, held at the Nizhny Novgorod Pedagogical Institute named after. G.Gorky in 1990, 1991, 1992; at the international scientific conference “Culture, art of the Tatar people: origins, traditions and relationships” at the Institute of Language, Literature and History of the Kazan Scientific Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences in May 1991 / report, received a rating of V in the press; at the international scientific and practical conference "Russia and the East: problems of interaction" at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences in December 1992.
The structure of the dissertation was determined by the purpose and objectives of the study. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, notes, a bibliographic list of sources and literature, as well as appendices containing chronological tables of Russian metropolitans, Sarai bishops and Golden Horde khans compiled by the author.
MAIN CONTENT OF THE STUDY
The Introduction justifies the choice of topic, its relevance, forms the main goals, objectives and methods of research, defines the chronological framework, indicates its scientific novelty and practical significance.
The first chapter - “Sources and historiography” - provides a description of the sources and scientific literature used in the work on the topic of the dissertation.
The main sources include Russian chronicles, which remain the main repository of facts on various problems of Russian history, including on the chosen topic. The following chronicle collections were used in the reviewed work: Laurentian Chronicle, Ipatiev Chronicle, Trinity Chronicle, Simeonov Chronicle, Novgorod First Chronicle, Novgorod Third and Fourth Chronicles, Sofia First Chronicle, Chronicler Rogozhsky, Tver Chronicle /Tver Collection/, Resurrection Chronicle, Chronicle Code Moscow Grand Duke of the end of the 15th century, Chronicle of Niko-
1C.: Tatarstan. - 1991. - No. 7. - P.65.
Novskaya, Ermolinskaya Chronicle, Book of Degree of the Royal Genealogy.
Another valuable source is the label of the Mongol khans given to the Russian clergy. They contain unique information about the nature of the awards and the scope of privileges granted by the conquerors to the Orthodox clergy. There is a short and a long collection of labels. The first is the oldest and more reliable. A short collection of labels has been published several times. The work uses publications made by A.A. Zimin and A.I. Pliguzov.
The most important sources for characterizing the property and legal status of the church are official materials. They contain information about judicial immunity of church properties and financial obligations to the state. Documents of an ecclesiastical and canonical nature are no less significant. Decrees of church councils, messages of bishops to their flocks and princes, acts of the Patriarch of Constantinople concerning the Russian Church and many other documents significantly supplement the dry reports of chronicles about church events.
Hagiographical works are very interesting. The lives, as well as the above-mentioned materials, reflected the conditions of existence of the church under the rule of the Mongol khans. From the point of view of the topic addressed, the lives of the princes are of greatest interest: Mikhail of Chernigov, Mikhail of Tver, killed in the Horde, Alexander Nevsky, Peter, Tsarevich of the Horde, Metropolitans Peter and Alexei, Sergius of Radonezh, Bishop John of Suzdal, Abbots Euthymius of Suzdal and Makarka of Zheltovodsk, and also some others. Interesting results are obtained from the use of literature of liturgical and church teaching nature.
On the history of the Mongols and the Golden Horde, the necessary sources are the works of Arab and Persian authors. Most of their information about the state of the Volga Mongols was collected by V.G. Tizen-gauseko.m. The “Collection of Chronicles” of Racht ad-Din turned out to be extremely useful for this study. The news of this author contains information about the organization of the rule of the Mongols in the conquered lands, about benefits to representatives of various religions, as well as some specific information about the relationship of the Russian clergy with the Khans.
by which authorities. For a more complete picture of the nature of the confessional policy of the Mongol rulers and its specific content, it is useful to involve Chinese sources. They provide valuable comparative material for studying tax policy regarding clergy and determining the legal status of monasteries and churches. Armenian medieval historical works have a similar significance. Even in the last century, they attracted the attention of scientists and were translated and published in Russian.
The significance of the primary sources not only on the history of nomads, but also the East are the reports of the Catholic ambassadors of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruk, who visited Karakorum, respectively, in 1246
1254 Among other observations of both travelers, a significant place is occupied by the issues of the religious life of the Mongolian tribes and other nomadic peoples. The description of the confessional policy of the Mongolian kaans, given with specific examples, is distinguished by its reliability. These works are accompanied by notes and letters from Catholic missionary monks who operated both in central Mongolia and in the Golden Horde possessions, as well as letters from the popes to the great kaanads? and the Golden Horde khans. The “Book of Marco Polo” used in the work is of particular interest. To supplement and reinforce these written sources, archaeological material was used.
The degree of knowledge of the problem. The problem of the relationship between the church and the Mongol conquerors has attracted attention since the 16th century. The privileges granted to the clergy by the steppe rulers were used by the highest hierarchs as one of the arguments to justify the rights of the church to land ownership. /See: Epistles of Joseph Volotsky/. In the 1111th century. representatives of rationalist historiography paid attention to the role of the church during the period of foreign rule / M. M. Shcherbatov /. But truly scientific study of the problem began only in the 12th century. as part of general church history courses. In its formulation, the accumulation of factual data and the determination of some approaches to it, the works of Metropolitan Platon /Levlin/, Archbishop Philaret /Gumilevsky/ and especially Archbishop Macarius /Bulgakov/ played an important role, whose research contains an unsurpassed wealth of factual data both on the history of the church in In general, this is how I feel about the issues being studied. Dedicated to the moral significance of the church during the period of conquest and rule of the Mongols over the Russian lands.
a small work by P. Obraztsov. Written without the involvement of the required number of sources, this work has more journalistic than scientific research significance. As a definite result of pre-revolutionary Russian historiography of church history, one can consider the work of the professor of the Moscow Theological Academy E.E. Golubinsky. Because of the breadth of questions posed and the wealth of facts reported, this study still retains its significance. On the topic of interest to us, it remains the most comprehensive and complete, despite the appearance of other works after it. The book by P.P. Sokolov is of interest. He studies the effect of Byzantine legal and canonical norms in the Russian environment against a broad background of specific events in church and state history. The author's thoughts on the labels and an explanation of their content are of interest for the source study of these documents.
It should be noted that the work of priest N.A. Solovyov is dedicated to the history of the Sarai diocese. It was written as a commentary on the most extensive body of factual information about all the famous Sarai bishops. The considered direction in pre-revolutionary historiography should include the work of the historian of the church abroad A.V. Kartashev. >
These works are far from exhausting the topic, since all of them do not subject the specific course of contacts between the Church and the Mongols to a special study. A characteristic feature of the study of the relationship between the Russian Church and the Mongols in the 19th - early. XX centuries was the formulation of problems, mainly based on materials from Russian sources. Eastern sources were just beginning to be introduced into scientific circulation and were not sufficiently studied to serve as the basis for broad generalizations and conclusions. The history of the Golden Horde was poorly developed. This also affected the study of the problems of relations between Rus' and the conquerors, the influence of the Mongols on the conquered countries and peoples Without studying the issues of social life of the Golden Horde, the history of its statehood, it is impossible to get a complete and correct idea of the confessional policy of the khans, their attitude towards the Russian church.The only sources coming out of the Golden Horde environment that were widely used to solve these problems were yarlyki.
The study of labels has constituted a special direction in historiography.
which is also important for the topic under study. Among the works in this direction, the works of V. Grigoriev, I.N. Berezin, M.D. Priselkov, P.P. Sokolov should be noted.
The article by N.I. Veselovsky examines in detail information from Russian sources about the religious views of the Mongol conquerors. In general, we can say that in the works of authors of the XIX - early. XX century the foundation for future research was laid.
The next 75 years turned out to be, in our opinion, less fruitful. 3 For well-known reasons, issues of church history were not considered a priority. In most works on church history, atheistic objectives, often vulgarly understood, prevailed over scientific ones. The problem of the relationship between the Russian Church and the Golden Horde rulers was not subjected to special consideration in these works in full.
The first in Soviet historiography to attempt to look at the history of the church from the angle of class theory was M.N. Pokrovsky. His views determined Soviet researchers for a long time. concepts of the relationship between the clergy and the Mongol conquerors. The scientist believed that in the pre-Mongol period the church was highly dependent on the state. Batya’s invasion and the subsequent rule of the conquerors freed the higher clergy from princely dependence. For the sake of the privileges granted by the khans, the church entered into close cooperation with the conquerors and placed its influence on the believers at their disposal. According to the author, the Mongols “had at their disposal the largest police force, which made it possible to replace a physical sword with a spiritual sword, which was inconvenient to draw from its scabbard too often.”* However, the conclusions of M.N. Pokrovsky were not based on a specific historical analysis of events and facts, they sin by modernizing history and are too ideological!
Attempts of Soviet historians in the 30s - 50s. turn again: in understanding the connections between the Orthodox Church and the khans of the Golden Horde, they were not entirely successful. /E.F.Grekulov, N.Anikin/. The concept and conclusions expressed by N.M. Pokrovsky remained unshakable.
Statements about the treacherous role of the church during times of foreign rule began to be repeated in many works of Soviet history.
-("]ok1:ovsky M.N. Feudalization of the Orthodox Church and the Tatar.¡go. // Religion and the Church in the history of Russia. - M., 1975. - P. 109.
kov 50 - 60's. /A.M.Samsonova, N.M.Gantaev, I.7. Budszngts/. Assessing the church and clergy only as faithful allies of the Golden Horde rulers who served them in response to the benefits provided is an overly simplified approach to the complicated complex of socio-political and economic problems of Russian-Horde relations. In addition, in these works a specific analysis of the formation of the city and the development of Church-Horde contacts was not carried out.
Perhaps the first study that broke the tradition of considering the role of the church during Mongol rule only as treacherous was the Ph.D. dissertation of I.I. Bureichenko. Studying the political circumstances of the formation of monastic land ownership, the author in a special paragraph touches on the problem of the relationship between the church and the khans of the Golden Horde, trying to to identify the influence of land connections of spiritual corporations on their course in relation to the Horde authorities and relationships with Russian princes.
The emerging departure from stereotypes has been continued in recent articles and books. / N.A. Okhotina, A.I. Pliguzov and A.L. Khoroshkevich, R.G. Skrynnikov/ At the same time, the authority of M.N. Pokrovsky turned out to be decisive for A.S. Khoroshev and N.S. Borisov in assessing the role of the church during the Horde rule. In their works they refer to it without criticism and quote already known conclusions.
The authors of works on the history of Russian-Horde relations also touched upon certain aspects of the topic that interests us. /A.N.Nasonoe, B.D.Grekov and A.Yu.Yakubovsky, V.V.Kargalov, M.D.Poluboyarinova/. It should also be noted that studies devoted to the study of the social and state system of the Golden Horde are important for the correct understanding and characterization of the confessional policy of its khans. /GL.Fedorov-Davydov, V.L.Egorov/.
In foreign historiography, the specific relationship between the Russian Church and the Golden Horde khans did not become the subject of special study. Foreign authors, as a rule, limit themselves to discussions about the tolerant attitude of the Mongols towards all religions, stating the facts of the privileged position of the Orthodox clergy and small comments on the benefits granted to them. /John Meyendorff, B. Spuller, Hans-Dieter Dopman, G.P. Fedotov, G. Cheshak/.
A historiographical review of previous studies allowed. for the dissertation author to more clearly define the range of issues that are subject to in-depth development.
The second chapter - "The Mongol conquest and its immediate consequences for the Orthodox Church" - consists of three paragraphs.
The first chapter discusses the general principles of the religious policy of the Mongols. Like most phenomena in the social and political life of the Mongol Empire, they were laid down by its founder. Genghis Khan, along with the main military and civil institutions, defined in the collection of Mongolian laws, called the Great Yasa by Persian authors, the attitude towards religions with which the nomads had to come into contact in the process of forming their state. The text of the Code of Genghis Khan itself has not survived, but we can judge it from fragments scattered in various works of medieval historians. The most complete statement of the position of the Great Yasa that interests us is found in Juvaini. His information, like all the others that we have, shows one of the main directions of Genghis Khan and his immediate descendants in confessional politics - to equalize representatives of different religions and churches, despite their personal likes and dislikes, to keep them, as it were, at the same distance ; and also exempt them from taxes and duties. The reasons for this should partly be seen in the religious views of the Mongol tribes, who adhered to shamanism. It is completely uncharacteristic of shamanists to display religious intolerance, due to polytheism" and basic religious and worldview ideas. In addition to these facts, when establishing the reasons for religious policy, the founder of the Mongolian state was guided by political calculations. It was political benefits that were, perhaps, the main ones among the reasons that determined ultimately the final attitude towards the religions of Genghis Khan and his successors. This, however, did not contradict the religious traditions, under the influence of which the personality of the Mongol conqueror was formed. While the influence of its founder continued to operate in the Mongol empire, the bearers of which were the people raised by him; his commandments and regulations were carried out quite effectively. With the departure of companions and veterans, people brought up in new conditions appeared on the political scene. One of the consequences of this was the strengthening of different religious orientations even within some branches of individual dynasties. For the Dku-Chids, this was manifested in the adoption of Nestorian Christianity Batu's son, Sartak, and Islam's brother Berke. But even under the conditions "
During the period, when the unity of the empire began to disintegrate, the religious and political institutions of the Great Yasa continued to operate. The khans and their court were guided by its provisions and traditions in their daily lives, despite the professing of a new religion. The Mongol khans did not specifically seek to free themselves from their ancestral religion and for a long time retained faith in shamans. Attempts of this kind encountered resistance from representatives of the old nomadic aristocracy and the shamans themselves, who sometimes enjoyed significant influence. The new religions that penetrated among the Mongols primarily embraced the elite, while ordinary nomads for the most part remained shamanists. Even those who accepted a monotheistic religion often retained much of their old practices and beliefs. In the 19th century, when the successes of Islam in the Golden Horde steppes were evident, the Arab author al-Omari noted the violation of Sharia and the preservation of the Great Yasa.
The sources presented in this section show that in most uluses of the steppe state, religious policy was built on a general basis and was quite stable. This is especially characteristic of the 111th century, when the unity of the Mongol Empire was preserved. The Golden Horde khans acted on the same general principles in relation to the Russian Church.
The second paragraph is devoted to the analysis of the confessional policy of the Mongol rulers in the second half of the 111th century.
From the end of 1242 - beginning. 1243 begins the formalization of vassal relations between defeated Rus' and the Mongol conquerors. From this time on, the Russian princes began to go to Batu, the ruler of the newly formed state - the Golden Horde, for approval in their "fatherland". The establishment of subordination to the secular power of Rus' in relation to the Mongol khans inevitably had to affect the spiritual organization. The Orthodox Church, which traditionally operated in close alliance with the secular state authorities, after the Russian princes recognized the supremacy of the conquerors, had no alternative to forced cooperation with them. This was determined by the objective conditions of that time, and not by the desire of the highest hierarchs.
In accordance with the Great Yasa, the Mongol rulers provided certain benefits to the Russian clergy. According to Mongolian ideas, the Russian principalities were part of the Mongol empire, which belonged to the ruling family of the Chingizids, therefore
The exploitation of Russian lands was carried out by representatives of the imperial administration with the participation of Batu officials. The formalization of the system of exploitation of Russian lands began under Kaan Guyuk. In 1246, a population census was conducted in the southern principalities of Rus' with the aim of imposing regular taxes. A comparative analysis of sources gives reason to say that at the same time the first benefits were provided to the Russian clergy, confirmed by the corresponding labels of the kaan and the Golden Horde khan. The decrees of the great kaans on religious issues were of a general imperial nature, because were related to the financial situation and collection of taxes. On their basis, the Golden Horde khans provided benefits to representatives of various religions, including the Russian clergy. The receipt of grants by the latter was facilitated by the personal inclination towards Christianity, most likely of the Nestorian persuasion, of Kaan Guyuk and the eldest son and heir to the throne in the Golden Horde - Sartakh. Since Rus' at that time did not yet have an officially installed metropolitan, bishops who independently governed their dioceses could receive the yarshkk who issued the benefits. For North-Eastern Rus', the label could be received by the Rostov Bishop Kirill, who remained here as the only hierarch of the highest rank and, as is known from the “Tale of Peter, Prince of the Horde,” maintained connections with the court of the Mongol Khan in the Horde.
In 1227, under the Golden Horde Khan Ulagchi, the following census of all Russian lands was carried out. It was associated with the tax reform, which the new kaan Mongke began to carry out. “As before, by his decree, priests and the church were exempt from taxes and taxes. Under Mongke, special officials for religious affairs were appointed to the administrative structure of the management system. Perhaps there were similar officials and in the Golden Horde administration. In all likelihood, Ulagchi also confirmed benefits for the Orthodox clergy, but his “label has not been preserved. It is not without reason to assume that during the reign of the Muslim ■erke, the Russian clergy retained benefits, although perhaps not in full. This is supported by the founding of an Orthodox diocese in the Golden Horde capital, subordinate to the Kyiv metropolitan.
The grants granted to the Russian clergy were sub-gveradenk by Khan Yengu-Temir in 1275. By his order,
The third census of the population of Russian lands was conducted. This event was a consequence of the Golden Horde gaining independence from the imperial center.
For the problem under study, the question of the volume of privileges received by the clergy is important. The analysis of the Men-gu-Temir label and information from sources about the awards of these predecessors led to the following conclusions:
1. The labels were addressed only to representatives of the Mongolian administration, but not to the Russian secular authorities.
2. The khans gave the church only economic benefits - exemption from taxes and duties.
3. In comparison with the previous situation, the church and clergy, after the subjugation of Rus' to the Mongols and receiving labels from the khans, did not acquire any additional rights, including in relation to the local secular authorities, i.e. the princes.
4. The position of the church in Rus' after the conquest in the 111th century. still continued to be regulated by traditional legal norms /statutes of princes Vladimir and Yaroslav/.
5. The Church was practically independent of the Mongol authorities in its internal relations. The khans did not approve the composition of the highest Russian hierarchs, information about such attempts by the second sex. X111th century are missing.
In connection with the consideration of the scope of privileges and the resulting position of the clergy, the problem of the relationship between secular authorities and the church was raised. In X111 - X1U centuries. With the development of the Russian state, the princes encroached not so much on the benefits provided by the Mongol khans, but on the rights of the church, determined by ancient Russian charters. This happened not due to the weakening of the power of the khans, but because of the change in the position of the church, which was turning from a feudal owner to an economically powerful corporation, which was facilitated by the princely policies and processes taking place within the spiritual organization itself. The benefits provided by the Mongol khans also played a role in this process, but not a cardinal one and far from the only one.
The third paragraph examines the position of the church after the conquest of Rus', its tasks and policies in the new conditions.
Batu’s devastation of the Russian lands dealt a tangible blow to the Orthodox Church. Under the blows of Mongol sabers and in the flames
The fires killed many ordinary priests and members of the higher clergy. After the departure of the Mongol troops, the church had to restore its structure, which took more than one year. Under these conditions, the degree of participation of local princes in the appointment of bishops and metropolitans increased. This is evident in the cases of the election of Metropolitan Kirill and Bishop Ignatius of Rostov to the see. Since the relations between secular power and the church that had developed before Batu’s invasion continued to operate on the same legal and economic basis, the nature of the church’s participation in political activities characteristic of pre-Mongol times did not change radically. A study of the activities of Metropolitans Kirill and Maxim, the relationship of bishops with princes in North-Eastern and Galician-Volyn Rus shows that the church leadership did not try to pursue an independent policy towards the Golden Horde, bypassing the princely power. The Church, represented by its hierarchs, had a certain authority and had some influence on political life in the country. At the same time, the highest clergy tried to support the directions of princely policy that were significant at the moment, for example, the course of Alexander Nevsky to strengthen the grand-ducal power and maintain peaceful relations with the Horde. At the end of 1111, when there was a weakening of the grand ducal power due to the flaring up of civil strife, church hierarchs acted as a peacemaking force, promoting the peaceful settlement of disputes and conflicts.
The participation of the church in Russian-Horde relations was realized, as a rule, in the form of diplomatic activity. It should be noted that the Russian spiritual organization had specific reasons for such participation during the period under study. They are associated with the captivity of significant masses of the Russian population to the steppe state. Concern for the preservation of the Orthodox religion among captive compatriots, the desire to somehow alleviate their lot, to satisfy social needs were one of the main reasons, along with political and diplomatic ones, for the creation of the Sarai Orthodox Diocese.
The results of the study as a whole do not provide grounds for the conclusion that the church during the period under study was guided exclusively by its own material interests, acting to the detriment of the national interests of the country.
Third chapter - "The Russian Church and the Golden Horde in the 18th century." - consists of two paragraphs.
Petzvy Paraguago is devoted to the analysis of the confessional policy of the Mongolian administration at the specified time. In the first half of the 18th century. Significant changes took place in the life of the Golden Horde. The Ulus of Jochi was an independent state, neither formally nor actually dependent on the metropolis. Active processes of centralization in public life, reforms in the sphere of management and modernization of the exploitation system led to the strengthening of the khan's power and the increased desire of his administration to directly regulate the political and administrative system of the subject countries. The changes that took place also affected the policy towards the Russian Church. Another factor influencing this policy was the adoption of Islam by the Golden Horde as the state religion. In X1U z. Contacts between representatives of the Russian Church and the Horde authorities are becoming more frequent. 3 X111th century. We do not see any attempts on the part of the Horde authorities to somehow regulate internal church problems and relations between church and state, and in the first field work of the 19th century. Examples of this kind are no longer isolated. New trends were primarily manifested in the extension of the obligation to spiritual representatives to appear for a label to the khan upon their appointment and for confirmation upon the accession of the next Golden Horde ruler to the throne. Now not only the metropolitan and his representatives, but also the bishops of the Russian Church could receive labels. An example of this order was the trip in 1313 to the new Khan of Uzbek by Metropolitan Peter and a number of bishops. Events developed in a similar way during the accession of Khan Dzhanibek to the throne in 1342, when the head of the church and bishops received yarlyks. The nature of these yarlyks also changed somewhat. e. contained awards confirming the property rights of the church, tax and financial benefits, and protecting Horde officials and ambassadors from arbitrariness. In the new conditions, the khan's administration sought to give labels and the procedure for issuing them the character of investiture, i.e., confirmation of office. According to tradition, They continued to confirm some tarhan privileges, although not always to the same extent.
In the first half of Х1У w. The financial demands of the Khan's administration increased, associated with the ongoing grandiose construction of new cities on the banks of the Volga, which required huge amounts of money.
terlalygy means I human resources. Large expenses were also associated with the ongoing aggressive wars with the Hulaguids, with Lithuania, and others. The necessary funds were obtained by increasing tax and tax oppression of the population of both the Golden Horde itself and the dependent settled peoples. In order to expand the flow of income, the khan's government was interested in increasing the number of tax-paying population. Under these conditions, a review of tax benefits previously provided to the Russian clergy is taking place. The Russian Church was subject to certain financial obligations to the Khan's court in Sarai. Due to the paucity of sources, it is almost impossible to determine the specific volume and type of these obligations. One can only say that under Dzhanibek there was talk of annual payments on a par with secular authorities. The change in the nature of labels and financial obligations indicate the desire of the Horde authorities to give the Russian church the status of a vassal of the khan. The noted trends were especially clearly manifested during the reign of Uzbek /1313 - 1342/ and Janibek /1342 - 1357/. Under Khan Ber-dibek /1357 - 1359/ there was a return to the previous order of relations with the Russian Church, its former privileged position was restored. This was facilitated by the murder of Janibek and the removal from government administration in the Golden Horde of the Muslim circles that supported him. After the label of Berdibek, the label of Khan Tulak is known, and it also mentions the jarl of Khan Azi-za. These labels repeated the awards made to Metropolitan Alexei by Khan Berdibek. But in fact, the documents mentioned reflected not so much the subordinate position of the church as the desire of the new khans to maintain the appearance of former power and former relations. Began in the second half of the 18th century. The destabilization of the life of the steppe state soon made these relations purely formal, having significance for the church only due to the continued recognition of Mongol power by the Grand Duke, and the need to maintain connections with Constantinople, since all the main transport routes to Byzantium passed through the territory of the Golden Horde.
The second paragraph examines the participation of the church in political activities during this period, its position in relation to the Golden Horde. The study showed that in the activities of Metropolitan Peter, for the first time, the attitude towards the Golden Horde ruler outgrew the framework of ordinary loyalty, which was adhered to
his predecessors. The main reason for this was the political struggle between the Moscow and Tver princely dynasties for the grand-ducal table and hegemony in North-Eastern Rus'. The metropolitan, who was met with hostility, was drawn into the whirlpool of intense confrontation against his will and became an active political figure. Not accepted by Grand Duke Mikhail of Tver, the Metropolitan received the support of his opponents, but this could not yet serve as a reliable guarantee of maintaining his positions. The only force left capable of stopping the Grand Duke was the Sarai Khan, who acted as the highest authority for the princes. Even before arriving in Vladimir in April 1308, the Metropolitan went to Khan Tokta in order to gain support. As a result, for the first time a label issued to a representative of the Russian clergy takes on the features of an investment tour. The Metropolitan received support from the Uzbek Khan in 1313, for which he was forced to accept certain financial obligations.
Having failed to remove Peter from the metropolitan see, Mikhail Tverskoy significantly weakened his chances of victory, and on the contrary, the Moscow princes, having supported the head of the church, acquired in him a powerful ally and excellent prospects for the further strengthening of Moscow. Their rapprochement was also facilitated by the coincidence of interests in relation to the Horde, which was looked upon as the main means of solving political problems. By the time Peter’s successor, the Greek Theognostus, took the metropolitan see, Moscow had managed to defeat its main enemy Tver, and the political situation in North-Eastern Rus' had somewhat stabilized. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the relationship between the head of the church and the Grand Duke returned to its previous traditional framework. The Metropolitan lived in the city of the Grand Duke and acted as his ally in both domestic and foreign policy. But compared to the 111th century, the degree of influence of secular power on the church increased. In the field of internal politics, one can feel the tacit approval of the activities of Ivan Kalita, who acted as a representative of the Horde authorities and their demands.
Feognost’s support for Moscow policy under Prince Semyon Ivanovich Gord is much more clearly visible. At times, the metropolitan single-handedly participated in inter-prince relations / in 1346 /, or with a coalition of princes headed by the Grand Duke / 1340/. But the greater assistance of the head of the church to Moscow politics was still carried out within the sphere of his competence." An example is the rae-
returned to the 40s. 19th century the struggle of Semyon Ivanovich with the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes, characterizing the attitude of the church leadership towards the Horde. In the context of these events, the question of the addressee of Taidula’s label dated September 26, 1347 is further considered. This document was the result of an appeal by church hierarchs to the khan’s authorities to resolve controversial issues. Under Peter and Theognostus, the Russian church became actively involved in the political struggle, which led to increased interference in its affairs by the Horde administration.
Metropolitan Alexey was a direct successor of the activities of his predecessors. His course towards protecting the power of the Moscow princes: protecting their possessions, basically, had a loyal attitude towards the supreme power of the Golden Horde Khan. It was under Alexei that there was a return to the previous policy of the khans towards the Russian church, a rejection of direct fiscal interest in it. There is also reason to say that under Alexei, for the first time, the procedure for the participation of the church in the payment of Russian tribute to the Horde by the Grand Duke was established.
5 Х1У b. There is still no visible independent political course of the church in relation to the Horde. The disintegration processes characteristic of the period of fragmentation also affected the church. The struggle for its unity was closely intertwined with the struggle for the unity of the Russian state. In this, the spiritual authorities resorted to the assistance of the Saransk khans, as well as the secular ones. This led to increased interference by the Horde authorities in the affairs of the church. The Khan's administration, in the spirit of its policy, sought to take advantage of the contradictions arising in the church sphere. However, these contradictions appear not as conflicts between secular and spiritual authorities, but as a struggle between the allies of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan with local princes and bishops, their proteges. In general, the political course of the church in relation to the Golden Horde corresponded to the general patterns in the development of the Russian state.
The Conclusion summarizes the results and formulates the general conclusions of the study. The traditional opinion in Soviet historiography about the church's support for Mongol rule seems purely speculative and is not confirmed in the sources. The confessional policy of the Mongol khans placed the clergy in a privileged position compared to the rest of the population of Rus', which determined the duality of its position.
provisions The Church, taking advantage of the benefits provided, did not at all seek to advance its interests to the detriment of the people and the state. On the contrary, it can be argued that the church, as an integral part of Russian society, generally stood on the side of the state during the difficult period of foreign domination.
The Conclusion also touches upon the problem of the missionary activity of the Russian Church in the Mongolian possessions in connection with all-Russian tasks in the East. In the 40s X111th century For Rus', there was an acute problem of establishing relations with the state of the conquerors. In this matter, the church could provide invaluable services to the Russian state. In many ways, it was political necessity that contributed to the beginning of missionary work among the Mongols and the nomadic tribes subject to them. From the very beginning of contacts with the conquerors, the Orthodox clergy penetrated among the nomads. In addition to performing diplomatic tasks, the goal of spreading Christianity was pursued, especially the conversion of Mongolian rulers and members of their families to Orthodoxy. If successful, the prospect of ideological influence on the khans opened up, which could contribute to the establishment of less rigid forms of subordination of Rus' to the power of the Mongol rulers. Such penetration was facilitated by the stable position occupied by Christianity, mainly of the Nestorian persuasion, in the Mongol Empire, and by the religious policy of its authorities. In addition, the religious views of the Mongols, who were characterized by spontaneous monotheism, inspired hope for their rapid adoption of the new faith. This section, based on available sources, further traces the development of missionary activity of the Orthodox clergy, changes in conditions and opportunities for it.
The stable position of Christianity in the Golden Horde was supported and expanded thanks to the activities of not only representatives of the Russian Church, but also the Byzantine and then the Catholic churches. But in the X111th century. The Russian Church had a particularly significant influence in the Golden Horde possessions. This period of successful spread of Christianity coincided with the creation of its own state structure in the Golden Horde. State power cannot exist without ideological understanding, based in medieval society on religious beliefs. In such conditions, there was the potential for Orthodoxy to acquire the status of a state religion. The authorities probably counted on this very much.
tels of the states neighboring the Golden Horde, primarily Rus' and Byzantium. However, this possibility was never realized in practice. As a result of religious reforms, first by Khan Berke /1258 - 1266/, and especially by Khan Uzbek /1312 - 1342/, Islam was established as the official religion in the Golden Horde. As a result, the process of strengthening the position of Muslims in the state life of the Golden Horde began. During these events, facts of religious persecution of Christians were sometimes admitted, but there was no fundamental change in the situation of the Christian population and clergy. Accordingly, the missionary activity of the Russian Church decreased, but was not stopped. Despite the determined priority of Islam, the rather peaceful coexistence of the two religions continued in the future.
The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected in the following publications:
1. Ethno-confessional composition of the population of the Golden Horde in the 111th century and the emergence of the Horde Orthodox diocese. //Research on the history of the USSR: problems of interaction and dynamics of material and spiritual culture: Collection. - Dep. at INION AS USSR. No. 34409 06/23/68. - P.33 - 39. /0.3 p.l./
2. About the addressee of Taidula’s label to the Russian hierarch John. // Minin readings. 1992. Proceedings of the scientific conference. - Nizhny Novgorod, 1992. - P.52-55. /0.3 p.l./
3. The problem of the relationship between the Russian church and the Mongol conquerors in Russian historiography. Toolkit. - Nizhny Novgorod, 1993. - 23 p. /1.5 p.l./
4. Rus' and the Golden Horde: some aspects of confessional relationships. // Russia and the East: problems of interaction. Materials of the international scientific and practical conference. - 1993. /0.8 p.l./
The process of deepening the Christianization of Rus', which began so successfully under Yaroslav the Wise, continued in an era that was characterized by the loss of unity and fragmentation of the Russian state. Kievan Rus splits into many appanage principalities. By tradition, the Grand Duke of Kiev is still considered the eldest among the Russian princes. Moreover, at the beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh and his son St. Mstislav the Great for some time still managed to restore the power of the Kyiv prince and keep the appanage princes in obedience. However, already from the middle of the 12th century. the importance of Kyiv as the political center of Rus' is rapidly declining. There was essentially no longer a single power. By the beginning of the 13th century. Rus' was a multitude of completely separate and independent principalities. Kyiv, which has lost its political significance, nevertheless continues to remain the ecclesiastical capital of Rus'. The Church, therefore, is the most significant connecting and unifying factor in conditions of feudal fragmentation.
The invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes marked a new period in the history of Rus' and the Russian Church. First of all, the Mongols took Volga Bulgaria in 1236. The path to Rus' was open for Batu. The devastating campaign against the Russian principalities began in December 1237 with the capture of Ryazan. A few years later, Rus' was conquered. The princes were forced to pay tribute and go to the Horde for a label.
However, the Mongol-Tatars, for all their cruelty, were very tolerant of any religion. The Mongols built respect for any religion on the recognition of a single Divine principle. They themselves considered Heaven to be such. The Mongols also showed great tolerance towards Christianity. One of the reasons for this was also the fact that during the era of the conquests of Genghis Khan and his descendants in Mongolia, Nestorian Christians had great influence. Nestorianism was practiced by many Turkic and Mongolian tribes.
A tolerant attitude towards religion was one of the principles of Genghis Khan's policy. It is clear that this was one of the conditions under which he could hope to create a world empire. The main legislative collection that guided Genghis Khan's successors was his “Book of Prohibitions” or “Yassa,” which prescribed respect for all religions.
The church and clergy suffered during Batu's invasion in the same way as the entire Russian people. Temples and monasteries were looted and set on fire. Many clergy were killed. Greek Metropolitan Joseph also died or is believed to have fled to Greece. However, as soon as the Mongols left, establishing Rus'’s dependence on the Golden Horde, the patronizing attitude of the Mongols towards the Russian Church, based on Genghis Khan’s Yass, immediately established itself in the Russian lands. It remained virtually the only free institution in conquered Rus'. When in 1246, by order of the Khans Guyuk and Batu, a population census was carried out for the purpose of imposing tribute, all the clergy were exempted from any payments to the Mongols. The Mongols' attitude towards clergy, in addition to ideologically determined tolerance, at the same time also had a certain shade of superstition. Orthodox priests were perceived by the pagan Mongols in part as their own shamans, who, it was believed, were better not to offend. The church was exempt from paying tribute, and the ecclesiastical court remained inviolable. This was one of the reasons for the significant growth of church land ownership - the more land that became the property of the Church, the more people were exempted from paying tribute to the Horde. The attitude of the Mongols towards the Orthodox Church did not change even after Batu’s brother and third successor, Berke, converted to Islam.
Under the same Berke, in 1262, an Orthodox episcopal see was established in the capital of the Horde - Sarai. It is possible that it was the khan who, for reasons of prestige, decided to open this Sarai bishopric in his Horde. This diocese in the very center of the Golden Horde was supposed to spiritually care for Russian prisoners, slaves who arrived in the Horde of princes. It probably also performed some diplomatic function in relations between the Horde, Russia and Byzantium.
Khan Mengu-Timur (1266-1281) laid the foundation for another tradition in relations between the Horde and the Russian Church. For the first time, he issued the first Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Rus', Kirill II, after the Batu invasion, with a label to govern the Russian Church, just as this was done in relation to the Russian princes. Since from the very beginning the Mongols did not encroach on the rights of the Orthodox clergy, the appearance of labels was not a constituent measure, but a protective one, in order to save the clergy from the encroachments of khan’s officials who abused their powers. In any case, the nature of the metropolitan labels was noticeably different from the nature of the princely labels: the Mongols never interfered in the affairs of governing the Russian Church. The labels obligated the Russian clergy to pray for the khan and his family, and forbade blasphemy and blasphemy.
During this period, the significance of various regions of Rus' changed greatly. Kyiv fell completely in its political significance. New centers are being formed. As a result of complex relations in the Horde itself and the Russian principalities, already in the 14th century. The gradual unification of Russian lands begins, a political union of the central Russian principalities led by Moscow is outlined. The Tatars, however, are trying to sow enmity between Moscow and Tver, Moscow and Ryazan, Moscow and Lithuania. In the process of centralization of Russian lands, the Russian Church constantly acts as a decisive unifying force. Thanks to her, the consciousness of the unity of the Russian people was preserved, and the restoration of all aspects of their life became possible.
The rise in Rus' was also possible because in the Horde itself by the end of the 14th century. there has been a weakening. Already in the 16th century, after the collapse of the Horde, when the Moscow sovereign reproached the Crimean Khan for constant raids, he replied that he could not prohibit his people from robbing Russians, since otherwise the Tatars would have nothing to live on. That is, robbery gradually became a way of existence, a feature of the national mentality. Naturally, such a people not only could not develop, but even remain at the same level.
Despite the generally tolerant attitude of the Tatars towards the Orthodox Church, the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (especially its initial period) is characterized by a large number of martyrs for the faith. In the period following the establishment of Mongol rule in Rus', the martyrs were mainly princes. Among the clergy at this time there were almost no victims of the Mongol-Tatars, since they began to be loyal to the Church. But princes at this time very often turn out to be martyrs for the faith. Of course, their deaths were very often due to political reasons. But at the same time, wanting to destroy the unwanted prince, he, as a rule, was asked to make a choice: life at the cost of betrayal of Orthodoxy or martyrdom for the faith.
During this period, the missionary activity of the Russian Church was aimed at the Mongol-Tatars. Conversion to Orthodoxy occurred not only through marriages concluded by princely and boyar families with noble Mongol families and even relatives of the khan, but also through direct conversions. One of the most striking examples of this kind is the fate of Peter, Tsarevich of Ordyn, canonized by the Russian Church. He was the nephew of Khan Berke, i.e. belonged to the very top of the Tatar nobility. He was baptized, moved to Rostov, founded the Peter and Paul Monastery here, where before his death he took monastic vows and acquired holiness towards the end of his life.
The beginning of the “Mongolian” period of Russian history is characterized, first of all, by the fact that the state principle in the life of the country is very much weakened. But the Russian people, despite all the shortcomings of the Kyiv period and the terrible spiritual savagery that followed Batu’s invasion, are already an Orthodox people. That is why the lack of statehood is compensated by the increasing importance of the Church in the life of society. It is the Russian Church that is the leading consolidating force that prevents the complete collapse of the devastated country.
In the pre-Mongol era, we see very few outstanding metropolitans of Kyiv. And on the contrary, we meet such great statesman princes as Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, St. Mstislav the Great, St. Andrey Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest. In the XIII-XIV centuries. the picture is changing. This, on the contrary, is the time of the great hierarchs of the Russian Church: Cyril II, Maximus, Peter, Theognostus and Alexy. Among the primates of the Russian Church, we already meet much more often people of Russian origin who occupy the metropolitan see legally, in contrast to the precedents with Hilarion and Kliment Smolyatich. And even the Greek metropolitans of this time bear little resemblance to the high priests of the previous era who were detached and constantly stayed in Kyiv, who, as a rule, did not even know the Russian language. The Greek rulers Maximus and Theognostus behave no less zealously and patriotically than the Russians Cyril or Peter.
It is the Church that Rus' primarily owes to the fact that by the 15th century it was able, despite the loss of western lands, to once again consolidate and throw off the Horde yoke. The Russian metropolitans, who, replacing each other, showed amazing unanimity and continuity, laid the foundations for the political line that was subsequently adopted and developed by the Moscow Grand Dukes.
Questions for independent repetition of the material.
1. In what facts was the tolerant attitude of the Mongol-Tatars towards the Russian Church manifested, what was the reason for such an attitude?
2. What political role did the Russian Church play during the period of feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus? What historical significance did this activity have?
3. What were the features of the most significant aspects of the life of the Russian Church during the period of the Mongol yoke (holy ascetics of this period, missionary activity and the foundation of new dioceses).
There are too many myths around the Golden Horde today, and especially around the history of Rus' itself during the period of the yoke. In particular, some publicists are trying to prove that supposedly all this time in Rus' they did nothing but resist the yoke, but is this true?
In fact, the horde, which, before the splits over the heritage, managed to seize significant territories and defeat Poland and Hungary, was not as wild as some publicists and ideologists imagine. In fact, the warriors of the horde were probably the most advanced even technologically, since they used the gifts of Chinese civilization, the most progressive at that time (Western Europe was not the most developed at that time).
And what was the reaction of the Russian princes and the church? In fact, for them, or rather for some,
it was profitable. So, for example, Alexander Nevsky became a sworn brother of Batu’s son Sartak, and accordingly became a relative, i.e. took tribute from cities and for himself personally (and not just collected for the horde).
The benefit for Nevsky was obvious, since the Golden Horde was able to really centralize the state, establish a tax system (progressive for that period, which was in effect for many years after the decline of the Horde), and also, by and large, give him such power that he would not have received until there was, in fact, no horde.
This was also an ideal time for the priests, since the horde believed that since they were, after all, the main rulers, the priests would be used precisely for the purpose of ideological influence on the population. That is why the church office in Sarai-Batu opened almost immediately.
Therefore, the label was also issued to churches. In particular, there was this provision:
“Whoever blasphemes the Russian faith or swears at it will not apologize in any way, but will die an evil death.”
Those. the essence was understood quickly, and, what is important to note, the church gained much more from such an alliance than from the alliance with the state before, since the well-being of the church directly depended on the loyalty of one or another prince. Often the church “did not receive enough”, and now on many issues the church had even more rights in Rus' than the princes, and even Byzantium could no longer influence the matter so seriously (previously it had to give significant funds to the “elder brother”).
That's why the church supported the yoke. This was probably the best time for churchmen. RAS researcher Dmitry Timokhin says about this:
“The Tatars have always been a model of religious tolerance. They did not destroy temples or execute clergy. What do you think the Orthodox Church gave them in return for such loyalty?... They simply prayed for the health of the Horde Khan, as for the legitimate ruler of the Russian lands. Now this kind of reciprocal “service” seems absurd to us, but for medieval people it really mattered.”
Actually, of course, it can hardly be called religious tolerance that if someone in Rus' is not Orthodox, he will be executed for it, but otherwise everything is true. The invaders believed that it was the church that would be able to establish contact with the people, and therefore they would not kill the tribute collectors, but, on the contrary, would pay tribute without question and thank God for such a wonderful power.
It is clear that, in general, this was a miscalculation, since it was not the church that shouldered the responsibilities of the defender of the horde, but, on the contrary, the horde took upon itself the responsibilities of the defender of the church, since it was the labels from the horde that confirmed the power of the clergy. And it was state violence that helped the church establish itself.
The church refused to support the horde only when the horde fell under its own contradictions, when schisms occurred, and in general the division of territories among the khans, when there was no time for Rus', and when Rus' could completely refuse to pay tribute.
Despite the fact that they eventually stopped paying tribute, many innovations from the horde remained for many years, in particular a centralized state and trade relations with different countries, because it was during the period of the horde that trade networks from China to Iran were established. Unfortunately, the same attitude towards the church has remained the same, i.e. the church must be absolutely responsible for ensuring that “slaves and others” listen and obey, no matter what.
The churchmen themselves, shortly before the 1917 revolution, recalled this period with nostalgia:
“The labels affirmed the following benefits for the clergy: firstly, the Russian faith was protected from all blasphemy and insults from anyone, theft and damage to the accessories of external worship was strictly prohibited; secondly, the clergy was exempt from tribute, all duties and all duties; thirdly, all church real estate was recognized as inviolable, and church servants, that is, slaves and serfs, were declared free from any public work” (Zvonar, 1907, No. 8).
“During the Tatar, or Mongol, period, the independent position of our church was strengthened thanks to the patronage of the Tatar khans of the Golden Horde. During this period of time, our church receives special privileges from the khans, thanks to which the clergy prospers and becomes a major capitalist figure” (Strannik, 1912, No. 8).
Vitaly Kokorin, NewsInfo
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