Assessment of the reign of Catherine II (According to V.O. Klyuchevsky). Catherine the Great: a competent essay Essay on the topic of Catherine 2 according to a statement

Federal Agency for Education

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Siberian State Technological University"

Department of Russian History and Cultural Studies

Essay

Catherine's reign II

Krasnoyarsk - 2010

Plan

INTRODUCTION The era of "enlightened absolutism"

MAIN PART

1. Catherine’s childhood and youth

2. Accession to the throne and beginning of the reign

3. Marriage to Peter III

4. Caring for the welfare of the country and people

5. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

6. Legislative activity

7. Preventing the “impoverishment” of the nobility

8. General survey of 1765

9. Certificates of merit

10. Culture and education

CONCLUSION

LIST OF SOURCES AND REFERENCES USED

Introduction. The era of "enlightened absolutism"

enlightened absolutism Catherine's reign

Catherine’s contribution to Russian history is very contradictory, for her time was marked by the strongest tightening of serfdom, the impoverishment of the people, the monstrous extravagance of the ruling elite, ruinous for the country, the tone of which was set by the empress, who spent fantastic sums on her lovers. This is a time of decline in morals, depreciation of moral values, a time of absurd political zigzags that buried many promising initiatives and were caused by the influence of successive favorites on Catherine. But on the other hand, this is an era of the country’s military power, strengthening the authority and security of the Russian state, significant internal political changes and an unprecedented flourishing of cultural life. There are many conflicting opinions about the empress herself. Some consider her feigned, dissolute, easily susceptible to the influence of others, while others see in her a solid nature, a highly educated, businesslike, energetic person, unusually efficient, self-critical, who knows her strengths and weaknesses. And although more than two centuries have passed since the reign of Catherine II, and during this period many works have been written about that era, the relevance of this topic does not decrease. Because the more we manage to learn about this unusual and mysterious woman, the more incomprehensible and inexplicable things appear.

Based on my knowledge and guided by the literature used, I think that I can say about Catherine the Great as a person of her era. The goal that I pursued in writing this work is not just to present the facts of the biography of this woman, elevated by fate to the very pinnacle of power, but to try to draw her historical portrait as accurately as possible, reflecting on the fate of the great empress and, at the same time, to think again about the fate of the country.

The reign of Catherine II left its mark on all subsequent cultural development of Russia. The century of her reign is called the Age of Enlightened Absolutism. Catherine managed to enlighten her subjects and bring Russian culture closer to Western culture. She also made significant changes in the mechanisms of government.

The reign of Catherine II lasted more than three and a half decades (1762-1796). It is filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was done under Peter the Great.

XVIII century - the era of “enlightened absolutism”, “the union of philosophers and monarchs”. At that time, the theory and practice became widespread, according to which the outdated institutions of feudal society could be overcome not in a revolutionary, but in an evolutionary way, by the monarchs themselves and their nobles, with the help of wise advisers, philosophers, and other enlightened people. The autocrats were supposed to be or should be enlightened people, a kind of disciples of the ideologists of the Enlightenment. This was Catherine the Second of Russia. The new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who very sharply declared his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childish capricious nature. Coup of 1762 placed on the throne a woman who was not only smart and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. The Empress wanted law and order in government; acquaintance with affairs showed her that disorder reigns not only in the details of government, but also in laws; her predecessors were constantly concerned about bringing into a systematic code the entire mass of individual legal provisions that had accumulated since the Code of 1649, and could not cope with this matter.

1. Catherine’s childhood and youth

Catherine II, before her marriage, Princess Sophia Augustina Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born on April 21 (05/02) 1729 in the German seaside town of Stettin. Born Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, she came from a poor German princely family. Her father, Prince Christian Augustin of Anhalt-Zerb, was in the Prussian service and was commandant and then governor of Stettin; mother - Princess Johanna Elisabeth - came from the ancient Holstein-Gottorp ducal house. The girl's parents were not happy in their marriage and often spent time apart. My father went with the army to fight against Sweden and France in the lands of the Netherlands, Northern Germany and Italy. The mother went to visit numerous influential relatives, sometimes together with her daughter. When Sofia was already ten years old, she was introduced to a boy named Peter Ulrich. Her mother told her that Peter Ulrich, a contender for the thrones of Russia and Sweden, the holder of hereditary rights to Schleswig-Holstein, was her second cousin. Several years passed, and her mother again spoke to her about a strange boy named Peter Ulrich. During this time, his aunt Elizabeth became the Russian Empress. She summoned her nephew to Russia and declared her heir under the name of Pyotr Fedorovich. Now the young man was looking for a bride among the daughters and sisters of European dukes and princes. There was a great choice, but only Sophia Augustine Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst received an invitation to come to Russia for the viewing. In St. Petersburg, Sofia appeared before the Empress. Elizaveta Petrovna liked Princess Sofia, but did not like her mother, Princess Johanna. Therefore, she ordered the first one to be “instructed in the Orthodox faith” and taught the Russian language, and the second one was expelled from Russia for participating in political intrigues.

In 1745, her wedding took place with Pyotr Fedorovich, on the eve of which she converted to Orthodoxy and received a new name. From now on, Sofia began to be called Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna. At first she became interested in fashionable novels, but her inquisitive mind demanded more. She turned to the works of French educators, the works of historians, naturalists, economists, lawyers, philosophers and philologists. Having mastered the Russian language, she read chronicles, ancient codes of laws, biographies of great princes, kings and fathers of the Church. As a result, Catherine II adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate his subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.

2. Accession to the throne and beginning of the reign

In December 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter III ascended the throne. Catherine II was distinguished by her enormous capacity for work, willpower, determination, courage, cunning, hypocrisy, unlimited ambition and vanity, in general, all the traits that characterize a “strong woman.” She could suppress her emotions for the sake of developed rationalism. She had a special talent for winning general sympathy. Catherine II slowly but surely moved towards the Russian throne, and, ultimately, took power from her husband. On June 28, 1762, a coup was carried out in Russia in favor of Catherine.

On June 28, 1762, a manifesto was drawn up on behalf of Catherine II, speaking about the reasons for the coup and the emerging threat to the integrity of the fatherland. 06/29/1762 Peter III signed a manifesto of his abdication. Not only the guard regiments, but also the Senate and Synod readily swore allegiance to the new empress. However, among the opponents of Peter III there were influential people who considered it more fair to place the young Paul on the throne, and Catherine II to allow her son to rule until he came of age. At the same time, it was proposed to create an Imperial Council that would limit the power of the Empress. This was not part of the plans of Catherine II. In order to force everyone to recognize the legitimacy of her power, she decided to be crowned in Moscow as soon as possible. The ceremony took place on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. On this occasion, the people were offered a rich treat. From the first days of her reign, Catherine II wanted to be popular among the broadest masses of the people; she demonstratively attended pilgrimages and went to worship at holy places.

In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, Catherine II showed generosity and condescension. She made every effort not to alienate both the influential, worldly dignitaries who had served Elizaveta Petrovna, and her young comrades who were eager to govern the state without experience and knowledge. As a result, many truly talented and useful people remained in their previous positions. Catherine II loved and knew how to appreciate the merits of people. She understood that her praise and rewards would make people work even harder.

3. Marriage to Peter III

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Feodorovich, who was 17 years old. During the first years of his life, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, works by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. Her main entertainment is hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of children of the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, whom she was immediately taken away from, named Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to raise, and only allowed to see occasionally. A number of sources claim that Pavel’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov. Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period developed a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.” At this time, Elizaveta Petrovna’s condition worsened. All this made the prospect of Catherine’s expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine’s secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by an accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted servant Shkurin set fire to her house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely.

Peter III constantly insulted and humiliated his wife. It is also known about the order for the arrest of Catherine, which was canceled at the insistence of Prince George of Holstein, but this fact was one of the events that influenced the formation of the conspiracy against Peter III.

4. Caring for the welfare of the country and people

Immediately after the accession of Catherine II, vigorous activity was noticeable in the state body. At the same time, the empress’s personal participation in resolving all sorts of issues was demonstrated in all respects. From the moment of her accession to the throne until her coronation, Catherine II participated in 15 meetings of the Senate, and not without success. The Senate lost its main function - legislative initiative; it actually passed to the empress.

The death of Ivan Antonovich (07/05/1764) relieved Catherine II of fear for the future of her throne. Now her ambition could be satisfied by the implementation of her own plans. She has accumulated some management experience and plans to implement innovations have emerged. Catherine II was one of those statesmen who intended not only to reign, but also to govern. Catherine II understood well the place of Russia in the world of that time. She did not blindly copy European models, but was at the level of the then world political knowledge. She sought to use European experience to reform a country where there was neither private property nor bourgeois civil society, but, on the contrary, there was a traditionally developed state economy and serfdom prevailed. It is difficult to list everything that Catherine II did for the benefit and glory of Russia. While still living in Moscow, after the coronation, she marked the beginning of her reign with a great and good deed: she founded the so-called Educational House. Being German by origin, Catherine II understood that the empress must first of all protect the interests of Russia and did not deviate from this rule.

By decree of 26.02. 1764 monastic, bishop's and church estates with the peasants who inhabited them were transferred to the College of Economy. All duties of the peasants were replaced by a monetary quitrent from the total amount of which (1/3 was transferred to the maintenance of church institutions (monasteries, etc.). Secularization had important consequences. It deprived the clergy of economic power. Now monasteries, dioceses, and ordinary monks were completely dependent on the state. In addition, the living conditions of the peasants, who previously belonged to spiritual landowners, were eased. This is due to the replacement of corvee with quitrents, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. The peasants perceived secularization as a blessing and stopped disobedience.

5. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The reign of Catherine II is called the era of enlightened absolutism. The meaning of enlightened absolutism is the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in carrying out reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development). The idea of ​​a state with an enlightened monarch capable of transforming social life on new, reasonable principles became widespread in the 18th century. The monarchs themselves, in the conditions of the decay of feudalism, the maturation of the capitalist system, and the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment, were forced to take the path of reform. The development and implementation of the principles of enlightened absolutism in Russia acquired the character of an integral state-political reform, during which a new state and legal image of the absolute monarchy was formed. At the same time, social and legal policy was characterized by class divisions: nobility, philistinism and peasantry. The domestic and foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century, prepared by the events of the previous reigns, was marked by important legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexations. This is due to the activities of major government and military figures: A.R. Vorontsova, P.A. Rumyantseva, A.G. Orlova, G.A. Potemkina, A.A. Bezborodko, A.V. Suvorova, F.F. Ushakov and others. Catherine II herself actively participated in public life. The thirst for power and glory was an essential motive for her activities. The policy of Catherine II was noble in its class orientation. In the 60s, Catherine II covered up the noble essence of her policy with a liberal phrase (which is characteristic of enlightened absolutism). The same goal was pursued by her lively relations with Voltaire and the French encyclopedists and generous monetary gifts to them.

Catherine II imagined the tasks of the “enlightened monarch” as follows:

· It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed.

· It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws, establish a good and accurate police force in the state.

· It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.

· It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

6. Legislative activity

Soon after ascending the throne, Catherine II discovered that one of the significant shortcomings of Russian life was the outdatedness of legislation: a collection of laws (the Council Code of 1649) was published under Alexei Mikhailovich, and life since then has changed beyond recognition. The Empress saw the need for a lot of work to collect and revise laws. Catherine II decided to draw up a new Code.

Catherine II began to formulate the general principles of the future code of laws of the Russian Empire. They were published under the title “Order of Empress Catherine II, given to the Commission for the drafting of a new Code.” Catherine II worked on “Instruction” for more than two years. In “Nakaz” she talks about the state, laws, punishments, court proceedings, education and other issues. “Instruction” showed both knowledge of the matter and love for people. The Empress wanted to introduce more gentleness and respect for people into legislation. The “mandate” was greeted with enthusiasm everywhere. In particular, Catherine II demanded a mitigation of punishments: “love of the fatherland, shame and fear of reproach are taming means that can restrain many crimes.” She also demanded the abolition of punishments that could disfigure the human body. Catherine II opposed the use of torture. It also seemed necessary to Catherine II to provide self-government to the nobility and the urban class. Catherine II also thought about the liberation of peasants from serfdom. But the abolition of serfdom did not take place. The “Nakaz” talks about how landowners should treat peasants: not burden them with taxes, levy taxes that do not force peasants to leave their homes, and so on. At the same time, she spread the idea that for the good of the state, peasants should be given freedom. The creation of this Commission was one of the most important undertakings of Catherine II. In accordance with the manifesto published on December 14, 1766, representatives of all classes (with the exception of landowner peasants) gathered in Moscow to draft a new Code. The commission was supposed to inform the government about the needs and wishes of the population, and then draft new, better laws.

The commission was solemnly opened in the summer of 1767 by Catherine II herself in Moscow, in the Faceted Chamber. The dissolution of the Statutory Commission became for Catherine II a farewell to illusions in the field of domestic politics. Using the works of the commission, Catherine II issued many important laws.

7. Preventing the “impoverishment” of the nobility. Free Economic Society

In 1765, the Free Economic Society was established in the interests of the nobility. One of the oldest in the world and the first economic society in Russia (free - formally independent from government departments) was established in St. Petersburg by large landowners who, in the conditions of the growth of the market and commercial agriculture, sought to rationalize agriculture and increase the productivity of serf labor. The founding of the VEO was one of the manifestations of the policy of enlightened absolutism. VEO began its activities by announcing competitive tasks, publishing “Proceedings of VEO” (1766-1915, more than 280 volumes) and appendices to them. The first competition was announced on the initiative of the Empress herself in 1766: Until 1861, 243 competitive tasks of a socio-economic and scientific-economic nature were announced. Socio-economic issues concerned three problems: 1) land ownership and serfdom, 2) the comparative profitability of corvee and quitrent, 3) the use of hired labor in agriculture.

The activities of VEO contributed to the introduction of new crops, new types of agriculture, and the development of economic relations. In the field of industry and trade, Catherine II (by decree of 1767 and manifesto of 1775) proclaimed the principle of freedom of entrepreneurial activity, which was primarily beneficial to the nobility: it had serf labor resources, had cheap raw materials, and received subsidies from state and class credit institutions. The nobility, including the middle nobility, took the path of feudal entrepreneurship - the number of patrimonial manufactories began to grow. The growth of peasant manufactures also benefited the nobility, since many peasant entrepreneurs were serfs. Finally, the leaving of quitrent peasants to the city to earn money was also convenient for the landowner, who wanted to get more cash. There were few capitalist enterprises, that is, based on hired labor, and the hired workers were often not personally free, but serfs working to earn money. Forms of industry based on various types of forced labor were absolutely predominant. At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II in Russia there were 655 industrial enterprises, by the end - 2294.

8. General survey

In 1765, the State Land Survey, begun in 1754 by Elizaveta Petrovna, was continued. To streamline landownership, it was necessary to accurately determine the boundaries of the land holdings of individuals, peasant communities, cities, churches and other land owners. The general survey was caused by frequent land disputes. Verification of ancient ownership rights caused stubborn resistance among the nobility, since by the middle of the 18th century the landowners owned numerous unauthorized government lands. According to the manifesto, the government presented the landowners with a huge fund of land, numbering about 70 million dessiatines (about 70 million hectares). The manifesto declared the actual possessions of the landowners as legal in 1765 in the absence of a dispute over them. In 1766, on the basis of the “general rules”, instructions were issued for land surveyors and boundary provincial offices and provincial offices.

In the process of general land surveying, lands were assigned not to the owners, but to cities and villages. The specificity of general land surveying was that the configuration of a particular property was based on the boundaries of ancient scribe “dachas”. Because of this, within the framework of the “dacha” there were often the possessions of several persons or joint possessions of the landowner and state peasants. The general survey was accompanied by the sale of unoccupied government lands at cheap prices. This took on a particularly large scale in the southern black soil and steppe regions, to the detriment of the nomadic and semi-nomadic population. The typical feudal character of general land surveying manifested itself in relation to urban land ownership and seizures. For each built-up fathom of pasture land, secured by the latest scribal descriptions, the city paid fines. The general survey was accompanied by a grandiose theft of the lands of single-lords, state peasants, tribute peoples, etc. The general survey was all-imperial and mandatory for landowners. It was accompanied by a study of the economic state of the country. All plans contained “economic notes” (about the number of souls, about quitrent and corvee, about the quality of land and forests, about crafts and industrial enterprises, about memorable places, etc.). The unique collection of general survey plans and maps includes about 200 thousand storage units. The special plans were accompanied by a field note from the surveyor, a field journal and a survey book. The results of general land surveying before the October Revolution remained the basis of civil law relations in the field of land law in Russia.

9. Certificates of merit

In order to formalize the class privileges of the nobility, the Charter of the Nobility was issued in 1785. “The Charter for the Rights of Liberty and Advantages of the Noble Russian Nobility” was a set of noble privileges, formalized by the legislative act of Catherine II of April 21. 1785. Under Peter I, the nobility carried out lifelong military and other service to the state, but already under Anna Ioannovna it became possible to limit this service to 25 years. The nobles had the opportunity to begin their service not as a private or a simple sailor, but as an officer, having gone through the noble military school. The complete liberation of the nobility made sense for several reasons:

· there were a sufficient number of trained people knowledgeable in various matters of military and civil administration

· the nobles themselves were aware of the need to serve the state and considered it an honor to shed blood for the fatherland

· when the nobles were cut off from their lands all their lives, farms fell into decay, which had a detrimental effect on the country's economy.

Now many of them could manage their peasants themselves. And the attitude towards the peasants on the part of the owner was much better than on the part of a random manager. The landowner was interested in ensuring that his peasants were not ruined. By granting a charter, the nobility was recognized as the superior class in the state and was exempt from paying taxes; they could not be subjected to corporal punishment; only a court of the nobility could judge them. Only nobles had the right to own land and serfs; they also owned mineral resources on their estates, could engage in trade and set up factories, their houses were free from troop billets, and their estates were not subject to confiscation. The nobility received the right to self-government and formed a “noble society,” the body of which was a noble assembly, convened every three years in the province and district, which elected provincial and district leaders of the nobility, judicial assessors and police captains who headed the district administration. This charter called upon the nobility to participate broadly in local government. Under Catherine II, nobles occupied positions of local executive and judicial power. The charter granted to the nobility was supposed to strengthen the position of the nobility and consolidate its privileges. Contributed to greater consolidation of the ruling class. Its effect was also extended to the nobles of the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and the Don. The letter granted to the nobility testified to the desire of Russian absolutism to strengthen its social support in an environment of aggravated class contradictions. The nobility turned into the politically dominant class in the state. Along with the Letter of Commendation to the nobility on April 21. 1785 The charter granted to the cities was issued. This legislative act of Catherine II established new elected city institutions, somewhat expanding the circle of voters. The townspeople were divided into six categories based on property and social characteristics: “real city dwellers” - property owners from the nobility, officials, and clergy; merchants of the three guilds; artisans registered in workshops; foreigners and non-residents; “famous citizens”; “Posadskie”, i.e. all other citizens who live in the city by fishing or handicrafts. These categories under the Charter of Grant to the cities received the basics of self-government, in a certain sense similar to the foundations of the Charter of Grant to the nobility. Once every three years, a meeting of the “city society” was convened, which included only the wealthiest townspeople. The permanent city institution was the “general city council,” consisting of the city mayor and six councilors. Magistrates were the elected judicial institutions in cities. However, the privileges of the townspeople against the background of the permissiveness of the nobility turned out to be imperceptible, the bodies of city self-government were strictly controlled by the tsarist administration - the attempt to lay the foundations of the bourgeois class failed. In addition to the Charter to the nobility and the Charter to the cities, Catherine II also developed the Charter to the peasantry (it was addressed only to state peasants). “Rural Situation” was a completely finished project. It did not contradict the “Order”. However, this project was not implemented. Throughout the reign of Catherine II, there was a discussion of how to alleviate the plight of the serfs. The empress herself was an opponent of serfdom. At the beginning of her reign, she dreamed of freeing the peasants from serfdom. She could not do this, firstly, because she did not meet sympathy among many of those close to her, and secondly, because the views of Catherine II herself changed after the Pugachev rebellion.

10. Culture and education

Another side of the empress’s multifaceted nature was revealed in her passion for science and fine arts. Catherine II was involved in collecting: she bought libraries, graphic and numismatic collections, collections of paintings and sculptures. Among the famous acquisitions of Catherine II are the libraries of Diderot and Voltaire, painting collections of such patrons as Brühl in Dresden and Crozat in Paris, which included masterpieces by Raphael, Rembrandt, Poissen, Van Dycky, Rubens and others. Catherine II founded the Hermitage, the richest collection of art collections at the palace.

The reign of Catherine II was marked by extensive educational transformations. Institutes, cadet corps and educational homes are approved by the empress's concerns. But the main merit of Catherine II in this area can be considered the first experience of creating in Russia a system of general primary education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). The Empress ordered the opening of schools everywhere: main schools were established in provincial towns, and small public schools were established in district towns. The main assistant in this matter was I.I. Betsky. It was planned to establish universities in Ekaterinoslavl, Penza, Chernigov and Pskov with the assistance of the public. Healthcare also attracted Catherine's attention. It is also noteworthy that under Catherine II, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor.

Smallpox epidemics remained a terrible disaster for the inhabitants of Russia, and Catherine II, by her own example, laid the foundation for vaccination, which then became mandatory by decree. During the 1st Turkish War, a plague epidemic began in the country. In Moscow alone, 50 thousand people died in a year. Illiterate people did not follow basic quarantine rules. Then experienced leaders were sent to Moscow. Strict measures were taken. The infection has weakened. Relief was made for the affected people: they set up a shelter for orphans, gave work to the poor, and began to buy into the treasury the products of artisans who had no buyers. The growth of the revolutionary movement in Europe and the growth of advanced social thought in Russia led to the aggravation of the reactionary course directed personally by Catherine II and especially the intensification of the ideological struggle.

Conclusion

Under Catherine II, Russia joined the union of European states. All rulers, without exception, sought the location of Russia; the country sailed all the desired seas, blossomed in art, and became covered with a network of schools.

Catherine's time became not only the golden age of Russian statehood, but also the flowering of the arts and sciences in Russia. Catherine never raised her voice to her servants, unlike other emperors. She forbade her nobility from beating slaves.

Wanting to succeed everywhere, she did not forget anything. Having ascended the Russian throne, she wished well and tried to bring happiness and freedom to her subjects. She forgave easily and bore no ill will towards anyone. She loved art. “All the years of her reign of Catherine were golden” - this is what many historians say. Catherine remained in people's memory as a shining star of the era, rightly called Catherine's. Neither before nor after Catherine was there a stronger, smarter or more brilliant ruler in Russia in the 18th century.

Bibliography

1. Borzakovsky P. “Empress Catherine the Second the Great”, - M.: Panorama, 1991.

2. Brickner A. “The History of Catherine the Second”, - M.: Sovremennik, 1991

3. Kamensky A.B. The life and fate of Empress Catherine the Great. M., 1997.

4. Omelchenko O.A. “Legitimate Monarchy” of Catherine the Second. M., 1993.

5. Pavlenko N.I. “Catherine the Great”, M.: Young Guard, 1999.

6. Encyclopedia for children (History of Russia, volume 5), - M.: Avanta+, 1997.

An assessment of the reign of Catherine II.

(According to V.O. Klyuchevsky)

Each historian gives his own interpretation of historical events. Let's consider the views of V.O. Klyuchevsky on the reign of Catherine II.

The main aspect on which V.O. Klyuchevsky gives an assessment of the politician’s reign - how much the material and moral resources of the Russian state increased or decreased during the years of his reign.

1. Material resources.

Material resources have increased in enormous proportions. During the reign of Catherine, the state territory almost reached its natural borders in both the south and the west. From the acquisitions made in the south, three provinces were formed - Tauride, Kherson and Ekaterinoslav, not counting the land of the Black Sea Army that arose at the same time. From the acquisitions made in the west, from Poland, 8 provinces were made - Vitebsk, Courland, Mogilev, Vilna, Minsk, Grodno, Volyn and Bratslav (now Podolsk). So, out of the 50 provinces into which Russia was divided, 11 were acquired during the reign of Catherine.

These material successes become even more tangible if we compare the population of the country at the beginning and at the end of Catherine's reign.

According to the III revision of 1762-63. it was believed that the population was 19-20 million souls of both sexes and all conditions. In 1796 according to the V revision, carried out according to the same calculation, the inhabitants of the empire were considered to be at least 34 million.

Consequently, the population of the state almost doubled during the reign, and the amount of state revenue quadrupled. This means that not only the number of payers has increased, but also government payments have increased, an increase in which is usually taken as a sign of increased productivity of people's labor.

So, material resources have increased enormously.

2. Social discord.

On the contrary, moral means have become weaker. The moral means at the disposal of the state come down to two orders of relationships: firstly, they consist in the unity of interests connecting the various tribal and social components of the state with each other; secondly, in the ability of the ruling class to lead society. In turn, this ability depends on the legal position of the leading class in society, on the degree of its understanding of the situation of society and on the degree of political preparation to lead it. These moral means of the state fell greatly during the reign of Catherine. First of all, the discord between the interests of the tribal constituent parts of the state intensified. Discord was caused by the Polish population of the conquered provinces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This element became a force due to the fact that, in addition to the southwestern regions, some parts of real Poland were also included in the Russian state. But one of the important regions of South-Western Rus', organically connected with the others, Galicia found itself outside the Russian state, increasing the discord introduced into our Western international relations.

Further, discord between the social components of indigenous Russian society intensified; this strengthening was a consequence of the relations in which Catherine’s legislation placed the two main classes of Russian society - the nobility and the serf peasantry. The nobility gained a foothold in power through a series of palace coups. The serf peasant population also thought of liberating itself in exactly the same way: following the nobility, they also wanted to achieve freedom through a series of illegal uprisings. This is the meaning of the numerous peasant revolts that began during the reign of Catherine II and which, gradually spreading, merged into a huge Pugachev revolt. This should not have been allowed to happen. The position of these classes had to be arranged legally, through the lawful determination of relations to the land. Catherine's government did not make this legitimate determination. On the contrary, Catherine issues a number of laws increasing the role and rights of the nobility: 02/18/1762. - Law on the freedom of the nobility, 1775. - provincial institutions, 1785 - charter granted to the nobility.

At the same time, Catherine adopted legislation that allowed us to say that serfdom had reached its peak. By decree of 1763 the peasants themselves had to pay the costs associated with the suppression of their protests (if they were recognized as the instigators of the unrest). 1765 - a decree allowing landowners to exile their peasants without trial or consequences to Siberia for hard labor with these peasants counted as recruits. 1767 - a decree prohibiting peasants from filing complaints with the empress against their landowners.

Thus, social divisions became even sharper. Consequently, during the reign of Catherine, discord intensified both in the tribal and social composition of the state.

During the reign of Catherine II, the economic potential of Russia increased, cities grew, and therefore industry developed, and capitalist industrial relations began to take shape. In agriculture, the connection between landowners and peasant farms with the market expanded. Russia's international authority has grown. But at the same time, trying to keep power in the hands of the nobility, Catherine contributed to the strengthening of class contradictions, which later resulted in the peasant war of 1773-1775.

Used Books.

1. Klyuchevsky V.O. Works in nine volumes, volume V. - M. 1989.

2. Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. Russian history. - M.1999.

1762 - 1796 - the period of the reign of Catherine II. Historians characterize this period with the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, “the apogee of serfdom”, “the golden age of the Russian nobility”. One of the important foreign policy tasks for the country was to gain access to the Black Sea. In the period 1762-1796, many significant events took place: the convening of the Legislative Commission, the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774 and 1787-1791), Russia’s participation in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and others.

An important event of this period was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775). The reasons were: dissatisfaction among the peasants and Cossacks with the spread and strengthening of serfdom, the deterioration of the position of the “urban lower classes.” dissatisfaction with the situation of the Ural workers.

The Pugachev uprising began on Yaik. The social composition of the rebels was wide: peasants, Cossacks, workers of the Urals. An army and a military college were created. The rebels demanded the abolition of serfdom and the destruction of the noble class. Pugachev's army besieged Orenburg and Kazan.

An important role in this event was played by the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev, an impostor who called himself the miraculously saved Peter 3.

Pugachev started an uprising and led the army of the rebels. He developed manifestos and programs. Moreover, he issued a Charter to the peasantry.

The uprising led by Pugachev was brutally suppressed by government troops, and the impostor himself was executed. Catherine 2 ordered to rename Yaik to Ural. This event led to the strengthening of the class system and a number of reforms carried out by Catherine 2. Self-government of the Cossacks was abolished, and a provincial reform was carried out, which further centralized the country.

Another important event was the Russian-Turkish wars. Their reasons were: the need to gain access to the Black Sea and the desire to help the Slavic peoples who lived in the Balkans and experienced oppression from the Ottoman Empire. Important battles of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 were the battles of the river. Larga and Cahul, Battle of Chesme. An important role in the Battle of Chesme was played by Alexey Orlov, who was nicknamed Orlov-Chesmensky. He commanded the Russian fleet and managed to defeat the Turkish fleet, which was many times larger. The result of the Russian-Turkish war was the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzha Peace. According to it, Russia received access to the Black Sea and the right to own a military fleet in it. Moreover, Russia secured the right of patronage of the Slavic peoples. The territory was also expanded: Kerch, Kuban and Novorossiya were annexed. The second Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791 was also successful. The siege of Ochakov, the battle of the Rymnik River, the siege of Izmail are famous battles of this war. Grigory Potemkin - the closest associate of Catherine 2 - proved himself in this war. He managed to besiege the Ochakov fortress, which became one of his main triumphs. Potemkin developed the Crimea and founded a number of cities: Kherson, Sevastopol. The result of the war of 1787-1791 was the signing of the Peace of Jassy. Türkiye recognized the Treaty of Georgievsk of 1783, according to which Crimea came into the possession of Russia. The territory between the river was annexed. Bug and Dniester.

Victories in the Russian-Turkish wars led to increased Russian influence in the Balkans and expansion of territory. Access to the Black Sea was obtained. The country's authority has certainly increased.

Despite numerous achievements during the reign of Catherine 2, her era is assessed ambiguously. On the one hand, the Russian Empire achieved its military power. Culture developed: the Russian Academy and the Hermitage appeared. They stopped persecuting the Old Believers. On the other hand, the situation of the peasants worsened, the serfdom system reached its apogee, as evidenced by mass protests. Catherine 2 strengthened the position of the nobles by issuing a Charter to the nobility, according to which they became the most privileged class. She also distributed many state peasants to the nobles. However, it is clear that Catherine had a significant influence on the development of Russian statehood and it was not for nothing that she received the title “Great”.

1762 - 1796

Period 1762 – 1796 - this is the reign of the Russian Empress CatherineII, who ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup, removing her husband, Peter III, from the throne. Her century is called the era of “enlightened absolutism,” that is, the policy of absolutism aimed at eliminating forms of feudal dependence of the state on the church and the spread of education and culture, as well as the “golden age of the Russian nobility.” This period in Russian history is celebratedFirstly, support for new trends in the economy, if they did not contradict the interests of the nobility;Secondly , using the ideas of the Enlightenment in the interests of strengthening the absolutist state of the “common good”;V - third, further deterioration of the position of serfs and at the same time sharp legal isolation and moral alienation of the nobility from other classes of society;fourthly , development of science, education, culture.

Being a purebred German, Catherine nevertheless surrounded herself exclusively with Russian people, which was not the case even under Elizabeth. She had a good gift, necessary for a ruler - to choose good assistants. Therefore, during this period, remarkable government, military and cultural figures appeared next to her, such as G.A. Potemkin, A.A. Bezborodko, Metropolitan Platon. It is for them, their intelligence, talent, enterprise and efficiency, EkaterinaII, who recognized herself as a continuator of Peter’s reform initiatives, was in no small part due to the brilliance of her reign. During the reign of CatherineIIThe international prestige of the Russian Empire increased unusually, primarily thanks to the power of the Russian army and navy, which won brilliant victories under the command of P. Rumyantsev, A. Orlov, A. Suvorov, F. Ushakov and other commanders. So, as a result of the first Turkish War (1768 - 1775), Russia lost the coasts of the Azov Sea and parts of the Black Sea. In 1783, Crimea and Kuban were annexed.

The most important feature of the Russian economy in the second halfXYIIIcentury there is a process of decomposition of feudal relations. The capitalist structure is increasingly taking shape in the economy, and the landlord economy is being actively drawn into market relations. At the same time, serfdom remained the basis of the economy. The number of manufactories continued to grow in industry, and by the end of the century there were already about two thousand. Manufactories were of three types - state-owned, patrimonial and merchant (peasant). State-owned manufactories belonged to the state and were based, as before, on forced labor. Patrimonial manufactories were created by landowners on their farms and were also maintained by forced labor - serfs worked their corvee for them.

Catherine never studied systematically anywhere, and her lack of education was made up for by her natural intelligence. Her favorite language was French and her native language was German. However, the status of the wife of the Russian emperor obliged her to master the Russian language, which she did very quickly, although she did not get rid of her accent until the end of her days and wrote with terrible errors. She read a lot and willingly the works of French enlighteners, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, and the works of Russian writers. As a result, the empress adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, as well as the need to educate and educate subjects about the primacy of laws in society. Wanting to be known as a “philosopher on the throne,” Catherine corresponded with French encyclopedists (Voltaire, Diderot), who sang “Northern Semiramis”; raised the issue of abolishing serfdom in society, hypocritically seeking and not meeting support from the nobility. Therefore, admittedly, contrary to the liberal ideas of the empress, serfdom during her reign reached its greatest flourishing, reducing serfs to the status of slaves.

By a Special Decree, peasants were obliged to maintain military teams sent to suppress peasant unrest (1763), landowners were given the opportunity to send peasants to hard labor without trial (1765), and peasants were allowed to complain about their masters (1767). The rights of the Cossacks were also infringed, and the Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated (1775).

The privileges of the ruling classes became even stronger after the appearance of “letters of grant” to the nobility and cities (1785). According to these documents, nobles were exempted from service duties and corporal punishment, could lose their rights and property only by a verdict of a noble court, and received the right to convene provincial and district assemblies. In cities, guild self-government and city guilds were formed, and as a result of dividing residents into 6 main categories, the interests of the city elite were satisfied.

It was under Catherine II that the beginning of the state education system was laid. And although education continued to be class-based, this was a huge step forward. In the cities, public schools were created, maintained at the expense of the state. They were open to all classes. In district towns there are 2-year schools, in provincial towns there are 4-year schools. For the first time, the classroom-lesson education system began to be used. In 1763, educational homes were opened in Russia, and in 1766, a society of noble maidens (Smolny Institute) was founded. The Empress re-established the Academy of Arts (1764) and collected a significant part of the artistic treasures of the Hermitage.

EkaterinaIIdifferent historians give different characteristics. But here is a statement by the 19th century historian V.O. Klyuchevsky believed that the empress had “amazing bearing, worldly wisdom and a strong temper of the soul.”

A2. The result of the adoption of the Council Code of 1649 was

(a; 1) final legal registration of serfdom

2) introduction of “reserved years”

3) significant expansion of the rights of the Zemsky Sobor

4) abolition of serfdom in Russia

A3. The reign of Mikhail Romanov

1) 1613-1645

2) 1725-1727

3) 1645 -16776

4) 1796-1801

A4. The worldview of the Slavophiles was based on

1) the idea of ​​a special path of development for Russia

2) the teachings of French enlighteners

3) theories of Western European utopian socialism

4) denial of religion

A 5. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of a contemporary and indicate which event of the 19th century. we are talking. “Nikolai Ivanovich Tsebrikov... a victim of an accident... Without knowing anything, he came to St. Petersburg to hang out on holidays with the comrades of the regiment stationed on Vasilyevsky Island. Having arrived... at the Horse Guards Manege and seeing a crowd of people, he jumped out of the sleigh and asked what had happened. Suddenly he sees a guards carriage running past the arena towards Senate Square, with officers ahead with drawn sabers. Tsebrikov knew many of them because his brother served on the crew. He shouted to them: “Where the devil is taking you, Carbonara!” A policeman overheard this and reported that Tsebrikov shouted: “In square against the cavalry!”

1) speech of the Decembrists

2) civil execution of Petrashevites

3) the assassination of Alexander II by the People's Volunteers

4) all-Russian political strike

IN 1. Place the following events in chronological order 1) abolition of serfdom

2) Cathedral Code

3) oprichnina

4) military settlements

AT 2. Which three of the listed concepts characterize the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s?

1) jurors

2) polyudye

3) household tax

4) Constituent Assembly

5) redemption payments

6) universal conscription

AT 3. Establish a correspondence between the names of periods of Russian history and the dates relating to these periods. PERIODS DATES

A) Nicholas' rule

1) 1565 - 1572

B) “golden age of the nobility”

2) 1730 -1740

B) “Bironovism”

3) 1762 - 1796

D) oprichnina

4) 1825 - 1855

5) 1861 - 1881

AT 4. Read an excerpt from a historian's essay

A. Kamensky and name the ruler in question. “At the very end of 1761, a 35-year-old man ascended to the Russian throne - nervous, impressionable, intemperate in his impulses and hobbies. He did not know or love the country that he was to rule, and it did not occur to him that he had any responsibilities towards this country, and that its people were not just a crowd of subjects. Having escaped from the cage where he was kept almost his entire adult life, he for the first time felt like an emperor, an autocrat with unlimited power and reveled in freedom, the opportunity to live and reign as he wished.”

C1.Name at least two directions of Anna Ioannovna’s domestic policy. Give at least three examples of Anna Ioannovna’s activities related to the named areas of C2. Review the historical situation and answer the questions. In the second half of the 18th century. The ideas of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” began to penetrate into Russia. What is the essence of this policy? Which monarch pursued such a policy in Russia? What is the contradiction in this policy? List at least three contradictions.