Ioffe G.Z. * Kolchak’s adventure and its collapse * Book. Heinrich Ioffe - the revolution and the Romanov family Three times kissed the ground, three times

Russian physicist Abram Ioffe left an unforgettable mark. During his life, he wrote several books and a large encyclopedia, published in 30 volumes. In addition, he opened a school from which great scientists graduated. Abram Fedorovich at one time became the “father of Soviet physics.”

Brief biography of Abram Fedorovich Iofe

The famous scientist was born in 1880 on October 29 in the city of Romny, which at that time was located in the Poltava province. His family was friendly and cheerful. When the boy was 9 years old, he entered a real school, which was located in Germany, where mathematical subjects played a significant role. It was here that the physicist received his secondary education and certificate in 1897. Here he met his best friend Stepan Timoshenko.

After graduating from college in the same year, he entered the Technological St. Petersburg University.

He graduated from it in 1902 and immediately submitted documents to a higher educational institution, which was located in Germany, in Munich. Here he began to work, his leader was the German physicist V. K. Roentgen. He taught his ward a lot, and thanks to him, the young scientist Abram Ioffe received his first doctorate degree.

In 1906, the guy got a job at the Polytechnic Institute, where 12 years later, that is, in 1918, he organized the first physicomechanical department to graduate professional physicist engineers.

Abram Ioffe defined the elementary electric charge back in 1911, but did not use his own idea, but the American physicist Millikan. However, he published his work only in 1913, as he wanted to check some of the nuances. It so happened that the American physicist was able to publish the result earlier, and that is why the name of Millikan is mentioned in the experiment, and not Ioffe.

Ioffe's first serious work was his master's thesis, which he defended in 1913. Two years later, in 1915, he wrote and defended his doctorate.

In 1918, he worked as president of the Russian Scientific Center for Radiology and Surgical Technologies, and also headed the physical and technical department at this university. Three years later (in 1921) he became the head of the Institute of Physics and Technology, which today is called A.F. Ioffe.

The physicist spent 6 years as chairman of the All-Russian Association of Physicists, starting in 1924. After that, he was the head of the Agrophysical University.

In 1934, Abram and other initiators created a creative club for the scientific intelligentsia, and at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War he was appointed head of a meeting of a commission related to military equipment.

In 1942 he was the head of the military engineering commission at the Leningrad City Committee of the CPSU.

At the end of 1950, Abram Fedorovich was removed from the post of director, but at the beginning of 1952 he created a semiconductor laboratory on the basis of the Department of Physics of NSU, and two years later (1954) he organized the Institute of Semiconductors, which turned out to be a profitable business.

Abram Iofe devoted almost 60 years to physics. During this time, a lot of literature was written, an incredible amount of research was conducted, and several departments and schools were opened that were dedicated to the famous great scientist. A.F. Ioffe died at his workplace in his office on October 14, 1960. He did not live long enough to reach the milestone date of 80 years. He was buried in St. Petersburg in the section of the Volkovsky cemetery “Literary Bridges”.

You see in the photo Abram Ioffe, who earned the respect of the people thanks to his intelligence. After all, so many years have passed since his death, and you can still hear about him today in many universities across the country.

Personal life

Abram Fedeorovitch was married twice. For the first time he had a beloved woman in 1910 - this is Vera Andreevna Kravtsova. She was the first wife of a physicist. Almost immediately, they had a daughter, Valentina, who eventually followed in her father’s footsteps and became a famous doctor of physical and mathematical sciences and headed a laboratory at the university of silicate chemistry. She married People's Artist, opera singer S.I. Migaya.

Unfortunately, Abram did not stay married to Vera for long, and in 1928 he married for the second time to Anna Vasilievna Echeistova. She was also a physicist and perfectly understood her husband, his work, and his attitude towards family and friends. That is why the couple lived a long, happy life.

Creative activity

Even in his young years, Ioffe identified for himself the main areas of science. This is nuclear physics, polymers and semiconductors. His works became famous in a short time. Ioffe dedicated them to the direction of semiconductors.

This area was well developed not only by the physicist himself, but also by his students. Much later, Ioffe created a school of physics, which became famous throughout the country.

Organizational activities

The name of the scientist is often found in foreign literature, which describes his achievements and the history of his advancement. The books also talk about the organizational activities of the physicist, which were quite diverse and multifaceted. Therefore, it is difficult to fully characterize it from all sides.

Iofe participated in the board of the Scientific and Technical Organization of the Supreme Economic Council, was on the council of scientists, and created the Agrophysical University, the Institute of Semiconductors, and the University of Macromolecular Compounds. In addition, the scientist’s organizational activities were visible in the Academy of Sciences, preparation of congresses and various conferences.

Awards, titles and prizes

Physicist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe received the honorary title of Honored Scientist of the RSFSR in 1933, and in 1955, on his birthday, he was given the title Hero of Socialist Labor. Received 3 Orders of Lenin (in 1940, 1945, 1955).

The physicist was posthumously awarded the Lenin Prize in 1961. For outstanding achievements in the field of science, A. Ioffe received the Stalin Prize of the first degree in 1942.

In memory of A.F. Ioffe, a large impact crater in the southern hemisphere was named after the scientist. Also, one large research university in Russia was named after him back in 1960; a monument to the scientist was erected in the courtyard of the institute opposite the building, and a small bust was installed in the assembly hall of the same institution. Not far from the university, where the second building is, there is a memorial plaque on which it is indicated in what years the outstanding scientist worked here.

A street in Berlin was named in memory of Joffe. Not far from the research university there is the famous Academician Ioffe Square. It's not hard to guess in whose honor it is named.

In the city of Romny there is school No. 2, which was once a real school. Now it is named after the great scientist.

In addition, not only in Russia, but also in the world there are many paintings, graphic and sculptural portraits of the physicist, which were depicted by artists at all times.

And to this day, many citizens know about this man, who made physics much more interesting and brighter.

Bibliography

We reviewed the biography of Abram Ioffe briefly. At the same time, I would like to mention the literature that the scientist wrote. First of all, it is worth noting the large Soviet encyclopedia. It began production back in 1926. After the death of the physicist, it continued to be published and the last volume was published in 1990.

Much later after the first volume, in 1957, the book “Physics of Semiconductors” appeared, which describes not only the theory, but also the introduction of semiconductors into the national economy.

In addition, Ioffe has a wonderful book “On Physics and Physicists”, which describes all the scientific works of the scientist. The book is more intended for readers who are interested in the history of creation and research.

The book “Meeting with Physicists” talks about how the scientist met with many Soviet and foreign physicists, they conducted research together, opened institutes and departments.

In addition, there are books that were dedicated to the great scientist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe. One of them is “Advances in Physical Sciences”. This book was dedicated to his 80th birthday. And in 1950, a collection was released, which was dedicated to the 70th anniversary.

It is impossible to list all the literature, since there is too much of it. After all, the scientist worked on projects and science for about 60 years.

Conclusion

The biography of Abram Fedorovich Ioffe is amazing. After all, not every person will be able to work on science all his life, conduct some research, open schools, train people and come up with new physical methods. It was he who showed the people how to devote themselves to work, their country and science.

Unfortunately, the scientist was never able to celebrate his eightieth birthday, but he managed to do a lot. And today, students and their teachers use the methods of the famous physicist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe.

Rose

It’s probably hard to come up with a worse name for the village near which our evacuation hospital was set up near Moscow: Mochische. But it’s probably hard to find a more beautiful place than this. The steep bank of the swift, wide Ob, the islands on it, immersed in greenery in the summer. Birds sing in different voices... Everything is in bright colors, local frying, sarankas, forests all around...

I don’t know exactly what kind of population lived in the village. Maybe they were exiles from afar, or maybe, as they said then, dispossessed locals. Poverty and misery are terrible. They lived in houses that would be more correctly called dugouts. Windows at ground level, rickety roofs covered with pieces of rusty iron and rotting boards.

They ate potatoes from their own gardens. She saved: a lot of it was born in the Siberian land, large, tasty.

From the hospital to the school, it’s about four kilometers to the village. In autumn, and especially on snowy or frosty winter days, it’s not easy even for us, boys and girls. There were only three classes - 5th, 6th and 7th. Overgrown 14-15 year olds also studied in the 5th grade.

From the first days of school I found myself in hell. It started after the class teacher read out the list of names and surnames of our seventh graders and named mine: Lilya Rosenblum. The class openly giggled, and some began to guffaw. My desk neighbor was Verka Zherebtsova (probably half the village had the surname “Zherebtsov” or “Zherebtsova”) - a snub-nosed girl with two mouse-like pigtails on her shoulders. The next day, before the start of the lesson, she loudly addressed me, imitating a Jewish accent:

Sarochka, did your mother give you a chicken with her? Are you going to eat it now or later?

Friendly laughter greeted her words. Laughter and swearing, which was common in the classroom. Everyone swore: both boys and girls.

This went on almost every day. They called me Sarochka, they asked me with a rolling “r” about the chicken, they talked about the Jews fighting on the “Tashkent front,” but the range of offensive and insulting remarks was generally small. How could people in Mochischi know much of what was attributed to the Jews?

At home I cried and one day, unable to bear it, I told my mother everything. The next morning, taking me with her, she went to the hospital commissioner, a lieutenant colonel. His name was Nikolai Ivanovich Golosov. About 50 years old, he was short, lean, with a gloomy face. He wore an already worn uniform, belted with a belt and a sword belt. The army cap he was wearing was also old, with dented sides, like Furmanov’s in the film “Chapaev.” He walked with a slight limp, leaning on a stick.

“It’s nothing,” the commissioner said after listening to my mother. - We'll figure it out.

He was smoking a rolled-up cigarette, taking a deep drag and holding it between his thumb and forefinger inside his half-bent palm.

“We’ll sort it out,” he repeated.

The commissioner came to the classroom alone before the bell rang. He took off his cap, placed his stick at the first desk, sat down at the table, placing his hands on it, clenched into fists. His face was more gloomy than usual.

“I’m a military man,” he said, “I say everything directly and at once.” No preamble. They reported to me that you are engaged in Jewish eating here. Look, that little girl Lilya Rosenblum has been hounded. Don't like Jews - yes or no?

The class fell silent. I saw a bee fly into the open window, crawl along the window glass and, trying to fly away, hit it. I closely watched the unfortunate bee, not seeing anything else and not thinking about anything...

Who will answer me? - asked the commissioner. -Are you afraid?

Somewhere behind me, the hinged lid of a desk slammed. Vaska Zherebtsov, an overgrown man who seemed to be in second year, stretched his long legs out from under the seat. He stood up sluggishly, somehow indifferently.

Why be afraid? There is nothing to love Jews for. They were six men here... My father told me.

Father? - the commissioner interrupted sharply. -Where is father?

Like where... Where is everything. At the front, fighting.

Has it been a long time since your mother received letters?

Not. It came after Easter. From the hospital. Was wounded...

The Commissioner stood up, pushing back his chair.

“And this girl,” he said, nodding in my direction, “has had a father at the front since the first day of the war—and not a single line.” Dead, alive? If he was alive, maybe it was he, a military doctor of the 2nd rank, who brought your dad back from death? Or maybe he saved his arm or leg? Your dad would have returned crippled, then how? Walk around the carriages, beg for alms? Now take this girl's mother. Also a military doctor, in any weather, in cold, blizzards, in autumn, knee-deep mud, he hurries to the wounded and sick. She’s still a young woman, beautiful, but all the time she’s wearing a padded jacket, felt boots, or rubber boots. He carries out his military duty flawlessly, no matter what... Parents, it means that they are saving your fathers, and you are poisoning their daughter?

The silence did not pass. The puffed-up Vaska was still standing at his desk. I kept an eye on the bee. She finally crawled to the window and flew away.

What are you worth? - the commissar said to Vaska. - Sit down. And so I want to tell you: the fathers from the front line will come, look at how you live here cold and hungry, and say - no, you are doing the wrong thing, the wrong thing. You can't live like that. We need to build a new life. And who should build it? There is no one else for you...

He coughed with the dry cough of an old smoker and, already putting on his cap, said hoarsely:

And here I am, an old officer, a former front-line soldier, I went through three wars, I order you and ask you...

Something apparently prevented him from continuing. He took the stick and, leaning on it, left the class.

Vanka Leontyev was not at school when the commissar arrived. Appearing the next day and seeing me, he cheerfully shouted:

Sarochka! Your dad, they say, returned from the Tashkent front. Did you bring a lot of apricots? I would treat you!

No one took up his cheerful cry. Everyone, as if they had heard nothing, went about their business. Lyonka Nesterov, a short, stocky guy, who for some reason always wore a Red Army helmet, got up from the last desk and went to Vanka. It was strange, but no one, not even the teachers, made any comments to him. So, wearing a helmet, he sat in class. Now, with a clubfooted step, he approached Vanka, adjusted his helmet on his head and, without swinging, hit him in the face. The blow hit the bridge of his nose, Vanka fell, smearing blood across his face. Nesterov turned and, without looking back, headed to his place in the same clumsy manner.

Time has passed. The war was moving towards victory. We were returning to Moscow. I went to the commissar to say goodbye.

Well, goodbye, daughter,” he said, putting his hand on my head. - I know it was difficult, but what can you do. Don't be angry with the guys, they are not evil. You see for yourself: they live poorly, it couldn’t be worse. After the war, life will change, then, maybe, conversations and things will be different. I don’t know... I still have to drink a lot. Well, good luck to you.

At home in the mailbox I found a postcard with the beauty of Lake Baikal. I turned it over to the other side. It was written on it: “In loving memory of Lila Rosenblum. Zherebtsov Vasily, Nesterov Leonid. The village of Mochishchi, Novosibirsk region, 1944.” And below there is a note: “Put it aside.”

I am fulfilling the wishes of Vasily Zherebtsov and Leonid Nesterov. I keep their postcard.

Encyclopedic YouTube

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HELL. Grigoriev about microwave radiation

Subtitles

Good afternoon everyone. Today in our studio the topic of physics and the topic of science continues, and there is a new guest in our studio, this is Andrey Dmitrievich Grigoriev. Good afternoon, Andrey Dmitrievich. Hello. And we will ask you to immediately introduce yourself and tell us a little about yourself. You are a professor at LETI University, you give lectures there; in fact, I studied with you for some period of time. Tell us a little more about yourself. Well, I’m quite an old person, I was born before the war, there probably aren’t very many people like that left. This means that he was born in 1937 in Leningrad, then our city was called Leningrad, so. At the age of 4 we were caught in the war, I won’t talk about the war, this is a separate story, how the war was perceived by the child. Maybe this is interesting, but this is a completely different topic. Therefore, after the war, we were evacuated, returned to Leningrad, I entered school, graduated from it, and while still at school I became interested in radio engineering. I began collecting radio receivers, first a detector receiver, then I collected several tube receivers. Is this still in school? This was back in school. Those. Did you already understand the principles of work at school? Without operating principles, it is difficult to assemble a working receiver. Apparently they worked for you, right? Yes. In addition, at school we organized a radio center, we also assembled a powerful amplifier ourselves, hung speakers there on the floors, and, therefore, broadcast music and something else during breaks, during all sorts of school events, in the evening. It turns out that some of you, senior teachers, teachers supported this and helped do all this, right? You know, basically we did it on our own, although there was support, since we were given a room there at the school, small, but still, in which we sat and did our homework. Instead, we sat in the radio center. Those. Children used to skip classes, which means that when creating radios, this is an interesting fact. And now children smoke behind school; truancy used to be like that. It's clear. And it turns out that what’s most interesting to me is that it turns out, where could I read about this? Those. the principles of operation were described in an ordinary physics textbook, and then you went ahead and did it yourself? No. Well, of course, there was special literature on radio receivers and radio transmitters that could be read. There was popular literature, and we studied from it. There was no television and no Internet then, and there was no Google or Yandex either, so I only relied on books. But, nevertheless, here it is. Well, of course, we not only did radio, we also drank in this radio center. We will kind of keep silent about this. And then it turns out that...? Because our school was for men. Then there were separate schools - women's and men's, so we had a men's school, the staff was like that. With all the attributes, it’s clear. And then, it turns out, at school... And since I was already involved in this matter at school, after school I decided to enter LETI, since it was a university that had radio engineering and that’s all. After school I received a silver medal and went to enter the radio engineering faculty. Yes, and they gave me the medal somehow late, and the certificate and medal with a week’s delay, I don’t know for what reasons. And when I came to submit documents, they told me - that’s it, we’ve finished accepting medalists, go to another faculty there. Well, to another faculty - okay, I went to FET, then it was called the Faculty of Electronic Engineering. Now FEL is the Faculty of Electronics, then it was FET. I went there to the admissions committee, they also told me - you know, there are no places, we already have a lot of silver medals here. Those. Back then the children were such medal winners, in short, did they all end up with a medal? Well, not everything, in our class, for example, it’s true that there weren’t even a single gold medal, but 5 were silver, that’s it. Well, I then said, okay, I’ll take the exams then, that’s all. If you give it up, give it up. I came home, at home, of course, they told me - what do you think, why are you doing it, better go... And my father worked at the Mining Institute, he taught. And, then, go to the Mining Institute. But they didn’t want to, right? Well, they broke me, I said okay. It's broken, I'll go get the documents. So, I came to LETI, I said, I need to pick up the documents. They looked at me there - and, he said, you were accepted. That is, apparently, this was my statement that I would take the exams, it apparently had an effect, they decided that he was such a motivated guy and that they should take him. Well, that’s how I ended up at LETI. And there you, in fact, began to study as an ordinary student, or did you already begin some kind of scientific work right away? No, well, you know, at first, of course, as an ordinary student, and starting from the 4th year I already worked at the department, and at the department, not only at the department, also at the Brain Institute, there I assembled amplifiers for recording brain activity, such highly sensitive . I just worked as an installer, so to speak. And at the Institute I had a leader, Volkov, Evgeniy Grigorievich, and he interested me in his topic, ultra-high frequency, I had a diploma on this topic, I even came up with something there. Well, since then, with short breaks, I have been dealing with this problem in one form or another. Those. here is the problem of microwave, microwave range, microwave... Microwave range. Mainly problems associated with the generation and amplification of these oscillations, this range. This range plays a very important role in modern science and technology, because its main application, of course, is radar. Radars are now installed on any civilian and military ship, aircraft, several pieces, even several dozen pieces, so they are installed on ground facilities. And they, of course, play a very important role for the country’s defense capability - they warn about the appearance of any unwanted objects. And in peaceful life too. Now the new breakthrough in this field is autonomous vehicles, cars that should drive without a driver. This is a matter for the next 10 years, probably, when they appear and exist, we will get used to them. And these cars and other vehicles are autonomous; they cannot operate without radar. So this remains a very important area of ​​science and technology. But at the same time it is a connection. Communication is very diverse, incl. space communication. All communications with spacecraft take place in the ultrahigh frequency range. And here is the last example: communication with the first object, American Voyager 1, which left the Solar System, is now moving in interstellar space, and just a few weeks ago there was another communication session with it. It means that during this session a command was given to turn on the engines, which had been silent for 30 years. And this command was executed, the engines turned on, he changed his orbit there and, therefore, the control center believes that due to this they will still be able to maintain contact with him for several years. The signal traveled from us there and then back for almost 2 days at the speed of light. 2 days at the speed of light? Amazing. Those. So they sent a signal to turn on the engines, but found out that they had turned on only 19 hours later. Well, that's great, of course. Not 19, in 29 hours. 29. And we will return a little to your life. But tell us about your student period. Those. you went, there are interesting pictures here, we will include them, that means you went to the construction of some kind of tower, it means you had some kind of military training, the military department, it turns out, was letish. Yes. Tell us a little more about this period. Well, we were sent to work on the collective farm, so to speak. Now there are construction brigades, in which people sign up voluntarily, but we were sent. The group took over and let us work on a collective farm for a month. Well, I was there twice on this call, so to speak, and it was interesting when we were sent to this village of Ashperlovo, it’s far away, Leningrad region, on the Pasha River. Such a completely remote area, some Old Believers still lived there. And here we are, which means we were building this silo tower. Moreover, none of the teachers were with us; we governed ourselves. And I had to go there to get building materials, and go there to get tools, and build this tower. But there was a foreman there who taught us how to do it. But it is very difficult to build a tower from bricks, because it is round. And each brick must be laid at a certain angle, and I learned how to do this there. Those. In addition to learning how to assemble radios, it means that he also learned how to build. Yes. And so we built this silo in a month, put it under the roof, or rather, in the picture it’s all there. I think they did it successfully. Well, in general, we had a good team, the group provided for themselves, which means they assigned girls there to cook food. But no one was worried that they were sent, so to speak, somewhere far from home? Well, we were worried, of course, needless to say. Some, not all, went, some didn’t go, that’s it. Then for practice, for example, after the 4th year we had practice in Novosibirsk, we were sent for practice in Novosibirsk. There, at a factory, a radio factory, we did an internship. Each had their own topic - the development of some kind of lamp, or something else. It was also very interesting - both the trip itself and we lived there for a month in Novosibirsk. This was also interesting. And, of course, there were military training. Then all the guys had to undergo military training, naval, more precisely, because we have a naval department at the Institute, so. And we had 2 gatherings. We held our first training camp in Kronstadt, mainly in the barracks, where we were taught all kinds of military affairs. And the second training camp was very interesting - in Baltiysk. Our team of 6 people from the group ended up on a patrol ship, and for almost a month we went to sea for exercises, so. We were assigned to BC-5, combat unit 5, this is a combat communications unit, and there we provided communications with ground points, with other ships, with submarines. Was it still technical work? Were the tasks primarily technical? Technical, yes. It was interesting to swim there, of course. There were all sorts of funny stories. Imagine, it means that they had to feed the bulls there, that means providing food. This means that from the galley you take this vat of borscht, for example, put another pan with a second one on top, and with this you walk down the ladder. Such a steep ladder down into the cockpit, and it rocks. We have to hold on, right? We must hold on. We had this guy, Marik, whose entire robe was covered in borscht. Those. he dumped his portion on himself. Yes. In general, they were interesting. Then Kaliningrad itself, Baltiysk is next to Kaliningrad, this was 57, 58. Kaliningrad was half destroyed then, and the impression was not very good. Imagine, here are the streets, and between the streets there are blocks of houses, but instead of these houses there are leveled fields of broken brick, 1.5 meters high. It's clear. Those. post-war period. Yes. It was not yet restored. Well, something remained there, we took pictures there at the grave of this very man, Euler, in this cathedral, which was also partially destroyed, partially survived. In general, there is something to remember. But from your Letish graduating class, many of the guys ended up staying to work at LETI or went into specialties? And how was the distribution then? Those. those who graduated from universities, did they mainly go on to work in the technical specialties for which they studied? You know, then there was a distribution system, that means. Not a very good system, in my opinion, but they were mostly distributed among enterprises, so to speak, of the profile you graduated from. Here are a few from our group... I ended up at the Ioffe Institute of Physics and Technology by assignment. The so-called physics and technology. The so-called Physics and Technology, yes, that’s it. Several people ended up at Svetlana, several people ended up at a similar enterprise near Moscow, in Fryazino, where our central institute was microwave and electronics. Here. Several people from other enterprises of a similar profile. Of course, there were problems, because some Leningraders who lived and studied here were assigned to somewhere in Tmutarakan. But, as a rule, you had to work there for 2 years, then you could come back, that’s it. Then, of course, people changed their specialty, but in general, they mostly worked in their specialty. Several of our people left for Saratov; there is also a large electronics industry there. To Gorky, which is now Nizhny Novgorod. And, in general, fate turned out quite happily for many. Among our fellow students from my group, one, Volodya Kozlov, is a State Prize laureate. He worked at Electron here in St. Petersburg, but now, however, he is retired. Also, that means I’m a professor, and several other people were also professors. They became professors. Well, there are professors, so that’s basically it. Successful. The heads of the laboratories were from our group, the girl Lyusya Akimova was like that. She was the head of the laboratory on Svetlana. So, in general, the work was good. But the fact is that then, of course, this electronics industry was developing rapidly, new ones appeared, just in these 60s, new institutes appeared that needed people, so there were no problems with distribution. The only problem is when you are sent somewhere to Tmutarakan against your will. So how did the guys cope with this? We managed. Those. did you just tolerate it? We'll have to go. After 2 years, someone stayed there, because new connections were already being made there, got married, got married. And someone was returning. But last time Alexander Ivanovich said that most of the students spent their time somewhere in the departments. Those. The main lectures were listened to, and then there was free time, and people went to work at the department. Well, in particular, you also said that you worked at the department. Tell me how. Those. it was fashionable, it was interesting. Why was there such keen interest? I personally am now wondering why the students of that period had such an interest in physics, in science, in doing something at the department. Well, you know why - I can hardly answer that. But the fact that there was interest, yes, it was. Well, for example, it was traditional for me, I have been involved in amateur radio since my school years, and this remains with me. And therefore, when I was offered to work at the department, to do things related to microwave technology, I, of course, agreed, and under the leadership of my supervisor, Evgeniy Grigorievich Volkov, I began to work. Then I wrote my thesis on this topic, and then continued to work in this spirit, although with a break, because at the Institute of Physics and Technology, where I had a different area of ​​​​work, I worked there in the field of low temperatures, studying superconductivity. Although at that time we also tried to make high-speed switching elements based on superconductors, i.e. performance was also present here. But the question is about free time. Here is the student's free time. What did students usually do in their free time? You in particular, you had some kind of car rallies, this may have happened after... Car rallies came later. Well, what about free time? And in my free time I played preference. I was hoping to hear that you were active in sports. By the way, I also played sports. One did not interfere with the other. Yes. Preference can be considered a form of sport. No, at the institute I studied sambo, sambo wrestling, I had 1st category in wrestling, and took part in competitions. Did you win, win or lose? Yes. Until I got injured, and because of this injury, I basically had to give it up. Those. Sambo, as far as I know, there are different ones there. There is where they fight with striking techniques... No, no. Sambo is Sambo. This is not... Not hand-to-hand combat. Not hand-to-hand combat, no. This is a struggle. This is a type of wrestling that was invented in Russia. Sambo stands for “self-defense without weapons.” There is a combat section there, and there is a sports section. We were engaged in wrestling, here. Its own rules, its own laws. Well, nevertheless, then come back... But here there are interesting photographs related to scuba diving. Tell me, it was after, so to speak... It was after. It was I who ended up after being assigned to the Physics and Technology Institute, and there we began to go to the lakes of the Leningrad region and engage in spearfishing and scuba diving. Spearfishing is without scuba gear at all. It's not allowed with scuba gear because it's too... Too easy, right? Easy, yes. But this is possible without scuba gear. This means that we at the Physics and Technology Institute made our own underwater guns. They turned them there on a machine, wound springs, made these very arrows, in general, and with this they hunted. Then we started scuba diving and swimming. We have lakes in the Leningrad region that are transparent. For example? The blue lakes are on the Vyborg highway, a little east of the Vyborg highway, about, well, about 100, 105 kilometers away. There are clear lakes there. Lake Ladoga is more or less transparent, you can swim there too. In general, the water is cloudy and it’s hard to see anything. Well, in the sea, of course, in the Black Sea, for example, you can hunt there. I also hunted in the Black Sea, where I caught mullet for lunch. But you talked about what the radio receivers themselves did, and somehow, that means you had your own technology, how to bypass the jammers that jammed the Voice of America, the BBC, and so on. Can you tell us about this? Well, in general there was interest, of course, in listening to what the enemy voices were saying there. And in order to do this, it was necessary to somehow tune out the interference that was being created then. Special radio stations were installed, we even still have antennas here in St. Petersburg, they are used for a different purpose. They were then used to create this noise-like signal on that station's frequency. And in order to tune out this signal, it was necessary to tune very precisely - a little on the sideband, a little... In general, there were all sorts of tricks, and the receiver circuit that would allow this to be done was, of course, more complex. But this does not mean that I came up with this scheme, I just implemented it. It is quite complicated, and in setting up such a receiver, it is complex, it is a so-called double-conversion superheterodyne receiver, here. My receiver turned out to be so big, and I called it “Meat-2”. Why "Meat-2"? Because, as I said in school, meat is a comprehensive concept. We had such a cry at school, meat. In general, at school, of course, we studied interestingly. That is, it turns out that you could get all these components somewhere. Components at a flea market. Where is the money for components? Where did your parents give you the money? My parents gave me money, yes. Those. supported the initiative. They supported me, yes. Did you somehow interpret what you listened to on the radio for yourself? Good bad? Of course they did. The fact is that when I was in 9th grade, it was 1953, and Stalin was dying. We are sitting in the radio center at this time, and we heard this. And of course, we had a receiver there. So, we heard it on our radio, not on another one. We heard this news and turned on the broadcast to the whole school. We think this is news that everyone needs to hear. After 5 minutes the director comes running - who gave permission? Now I will expel everyone from school. True, he shouted and shouted and calmed down. In general, our teachers were like that, the director... Strict, apparently. Yes. He came to class like that, when we were breaking another table there in the classroom, taking it apart piece by piece, he came and asked, whose children are you? Who are your parents? We need to delve into your social past. It's clear. And this same one, the physical education teacher, when we were poorly built there - who are you working for, he says. You work for Truman. Those. In short, these were political jokes, apparently. This was no longer a joke. These were no jokes. Well, in general, it was such a fun time. Apparently no one got by. Well, we had a very, very good team, there was a boys’ school, the class was very friendly, and to this day we maintain close ties with those who are still alive, just like with the group. But then from hobbies, that means amateur radio, let’s move on to your other hobby, alpine skiing. There are also some interesting photographs here. That’s why alpine skiing, and how in general, is already quite so, let’s put it neatly, which means that Andrei Dmitrievich celebrated his 80th birthday last year, his anniversary, and he still skis, and believes that this means this sport , it is available to anyone. Tell us how at that age... Well, down, not up. Well, down there, if you fall, everything becomes quite difficult there too. Tell us about alpine skiing, how did you get started on alpine skiing? You know, we need to start, again, from childhood, because since the war. I was in evacuation with my grandmother and mother, and in the evacuation in the East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan. There are the Altai Mountains. And there I learned to ski, and our skis were just sticks, or rather, boards, not bent. Not at all? Well, how to bend them? Well, just sharpen it. It can be sharpened, yes, it can be sharpened, but it was no longer possible to bend the toe like that. We rode down the mountain, we had this mountain there, it was called Grebenyukha, so we rode down it. And somehow this remained with me. And then, after college, I got into a company of skiers, and they seduced me into it. And they began to travel first to Toksa, then to Kirovsk, which means the Khibiny Mountains. Then to the Caucasus, the Carpathians, etc. And then trips abroad began - to Austria, to Turkey, to Andorra, that’s where I especially liked it, I like skiing, there are good places there. Here. This is a very good sport. Well, isn’t age a hindrance? I have friends, we were walking (let’s digress a little) also in the park, I met a man there who was about 75 years old. And he runs, in the summer he runs, which means he skis in the winter, and I kept asking him, pestering him - how is that possible? And he says - I’ve been involved in sports all my life, and I’ve never been involved professionally, but this is how it turned out. He says that many of my peers (he was 75 at the time) are already unconscious, but I, he says, thanks to sports, think well. How about you, do you feel that age is somehow taking its toll, not taking its toll, I don’t know, it’s hard, it’s easy? Well, you have to look at it from the outside, to be honest. Because subjectively, I somehow don’t really feel my age. This is good. Well, it seems so. Of course, I’ll probably get to the 5th floor now (without an elevator), you’ll already come out with your tongue hanging out. But... Downhill skiing is fine. Downhill skiing is fine. Fine. But if I ask you about your trips. You have a lot of photographs here, which means where you are at conferences, and there are a lot of interesting things here - Warsaw, Harvard, New York, Cambridge, Finland (Tampere), Nuremberg. Here everyone is now scaring each other with the Nuremberg tribunals, how are you doing with the tribunals? Nuremberg is generally an interesting city; there is a huge stadium where Hitler held his gatherings. All that remains of it, however, are ruins. Well, part of the stands remained, the huge field remained where they all gathered, that’s the first thing. There, not far from this stadium, there is a field like an airfield for airships, here. With the masts to which these airships moored and set sail. This is also preserved as a monument. And, of course, there are a lot of different churches, castles and other interesting things. But I was there, of course, not for that, but at the European Microwave Week, which took place there, I gave 2 reports there, and I listened to what others... In general, participation in conferences is a very useful thing, especially in international ones, because it , as they say, look at others and show yourself. This kind of live communication with real people, it doesn’t even replace Skype or the Internet, it’s still better. And you begin to better understand the problems that world science faces, we will say, and the ways to solve these problems that are proposed there, you also think - this is suitable, this is not very suitable for us. In general, I think that this is a very useful thing, and it’s very bad that lately this communication has become more and more difficult, primarily because of money, because at our university the money situation has not been very good lately, especially on business trips, and it’s not always possible to go, although you are invited, I am a member of the organizing committee of many conferences, but, unfortunately, it is not always possible to go to them. Although in October I also went to Japan to a joint Russian-Japanese seminar, also with a report, and listened to what they were doing there. Mainly on the development of 5th generation mobile communication systems. It is very interesting. Tell me more about this, if possible. What is the main essence, what is the main idea? You know that mobile communications is a breakthrough in the field of communications. By the way, even the science fiction writers of the 80-70s, even such outstanding writers as the Strugatskys, did not foresee the advent of the mobile phone, if you read their works, yes. you could imagine anything, but not mobile communications? Mobile - no. The fact that you have this very mobile phone with you, you put it to your ear anywhere and talk, they couldn’t come up with this, for some reason they couldn’t come up with it. But it appeared. This appeared in the mid-90s. There was 1st generation communication, when you could only talk, then SMS appeared, you could send text messages to each other, then it became possible to access the Internet, watch videos, watch movies. And the further we go, the more information we can exchange using these simple devices. Although in fact, a mobile phone is one of the most complex devices, if you count the number of functions per unit of volume. Because it is small, but there are now a lot of functions crammed into it. Well, you yourself know, I think everyone knows this, here. But the biggest problem with these mobile phones is that it is necessary to increase... in order to implement all these functions and expand them, you need to increase the speed of information transfer - both reception and transmission of information. And for this it is necessary to expand the frequency band in which this communication occurs. This is an expansion of the frequency band, it is impossible without increasing the operating frequency, like the carrier frequency of this phone. Well, maybe we can give some clear example for comparison? Here is the 1st generation, what was the band and carrier frequency, and now. 1st generation, which means the frequency was chosen there... The fact is that all the frequencies have been distributed for a long time, and we are experiencing a lack of free frequencies. And this so-called cellular communication is why it has become so widespread - it has become so widespread due to the ability to reuse the same frequency. So the whole space is divided into cells, and in neighboring cells the frequencies are different, and somewhere outside the neighboring cell the same frequency is used as in the original one. But since they are far from each other, they do not interfere with each other. And this principle of repeated use of frequencies is what made it possible to connect the whole world to this cellular communication, billions of people. It is impossible to find a specific frequency for everyone, but this repeated use is what ensured the success of cellular communications. And then, first, here is voice communication, this is a frequency band of 4 kHz, 4,000 hertz frequency band. Then text messages. The 4 kHz frequency band is like a carrier, so it turns out? No, it's relative to the carrier. Those. + 2 and - 2. That's it, I understand. Those. +2 kHz, - 2 kHz relative to carrier. Yes, from the central frequency, that's it. Then other types of communication appeared, and it was no longer necessary to use 4 kHz, but rather 400 kHz, this is the 2nd generation. But these 1st and 2nd generations, they did not affect us, because in Russia they somehow passed unnoticed. We started with the 3rd generation. And in the 3rd generation, it means that it became possible to use the Internet, connect to the Internet, it became possible to watch videos, some kind of animation, and this is already millions of hertz. This is 6 megahertz, 10 megahertz. Those. relative to the same carrier, +, -. The same applies to the carrier, back and forth, here. And now the task is, the 4th generation is already tens of megahertz bandwidth. And now the task is the 5th generation of development, which should go into operation approximately in 2020, as planned by leading operators and developers, such as Samsung, a number of Chinese developers, Motorola and others. By the year 20, 5th generation equipment will be available for sale. And there we are no longer talking about megahertz, but about gigahertz, i.e. about billions of hertz. And in order to realize such a wide band, you also need a high central frequency, otherwise nothing will work there. And how did the central frequency, the carrier, shift, in which direction? She kept moving upward. And this is typical not only for mobile communications, it is typical for all types of communications – both landline and interplanetary. And over the past 100 years, the maximum frequency of this connection has increased a million times, starting from these times of Marconi and Popov. Well, we have this picture here, we will show it to the audience. Here is this picture. Here. And, therefore, the task is to master these high-frequency ranges. There are a lot of problems here. Well, I am participating to the best of my ability in solving these problems. In particular, at Svetlana, a well-known electronics industry association, the Svetlana electronics industry association is our oldest enterprise in Russia, which recently celebrated its 125th anniversary. I was a little ahead of you with my anniversary. You have 80, and they have 125. Yes. Older. That’s where I’m participating in the development of an electronic device, an amplifier, which should amplify at a frequency of 100 gigahertz, that’s 10 to the 11th power of hertz. Seriously. There are a lot of problems here. What is this for? For the military? This is for both military and civilian purposes. The fact is that so far there is no specific customer for this product, but we think that if we show a sample, customers will come running themselves. What is the point, if it can be told at all? Well, the point is that in fact this is a well-known device, this is the so-called. klystron, which was invented back in 1939, here. But in order to make it work at such high frequencies, its design needs to be radically changed. Both the design and the manufacturing technology, because as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases. And 100 of these same gigahertz that I spoke about correspond to a wavelength of 3 mm. So this is the wavelength. And the main dimensions of the device, they must be commensurate with this wavelength, so all the parts must be very small, but at the same time made with a very high degree of accuracy, because tolerances are only possible within a few micrometers. And for this we have to use new manufacturing technologies, new methods of designing and modeling these devices, machine ones, of course. This is what we do. But this year we hope that at Svetlana we will make a prototype of such a device. This is very interesting. And it turns out that this should be, if you take the klystrons of the Soviet period, then if you look at the pictures or in the textbooks it is described that these are quite large, voluminous such products. Those. Now these products should be, I don’t know, small boxes. Yes. I don't know what they're comparable to. Well, if there should be a wavelength of 3 mm, it turns out that it is on the order of some centimeters. Yes. This is the working part, where everything happens, it really is in size, in length, let’s say, a centimeter, and in diameter it’s millimeters - 3 mm, 5 mm, that’s it. To do such a thing, there must be a high vacuum inside, and there must also be an electron gun, there must also be a collector, and there must also be a cooling system, because the device is small, but it is powerful. And since its efficiency is not 100%, the remainder of this power must be diverted from it. And the area is small, so you still need to come up with an intensive cooling system. In general, there are a lot of problems. Well, but if we return now to this, to the general part. Here we have such an interesting picture, so we will show the audience, in general, the entire microwave range. Those. we select only a specific part and work in it. Please tell us how the range in which we work in the microwave differs from neighboring ranges, and why are we here? Well, if we talk about the spectrum of electromagnetic vibrations, it covers several large ranges. If we start with low frequencies, then the first is the radio range. Then comes our microwave range, and then comes the optical range. Historically, it turned out that the optical range was the first to be mastered. And who mastered it? It was mastered by primitive people who first lit a fire in their cave to illuminate it... That's right. Physics is a natural science, so it began on its own. Yes, and warm it up, yes. And for many thousands of years, the optical range existed in this form - in the form of bonfires, candles and the like. And at the end of the 19th century, this one appeared, and the development of a new range began - the radio range. It started from low frequencies and gradually went higher, higher, higher. And so, at the end of the 30s, when the need arose for systems for detecting fast-flying aircraft and detecting ships, radar appeared that operated in the microwave range, or as we usually say in Russia - the microwave range, that is. And today this microwave range is used in a wide variety of fields of science and technology - radar, communications, particle acceleration, all large and small accelerators of charged particles, they use an alternating electromagnetic field of the microwave range to accelerate particles. Microwave ovens, everyone knows that, yes. But besides microwave ovens, there are also industrial installations for microwave heating and food products and, say, sintering ceramics and many other things. Medicine and biology, because this microwave radiation interacts with living tissues and produces a certain effect, incl. and medicinal effect, so this is also used. Therefore, this microwave range is used effectively today. The microwave range turned out to be the last of these 3. It all started with optics, then radio, and this is the last, because it turned out to be the most difficult to master. And this optical range has its own ranges. And today the task is to master the so-called. terahertz range. This is a range of very short wavelengths that lies between the classic microwave range and the infrared optical range. In this range there exists today the so-called. terahertz failure. If we draw a graph like this depending on, say, the power supplied by devices on frequency, then in this terahertz range, there is the smallest power. And this gap needs to be filled, and that’s what we are doing today. This is being done not only by us, but all over the world. So, it turns out, what size will the devices be then? Those. we know that wavelength is related to frequency in inverse proportion, i.e. There must be some very small devices there. You know, such small devices, of course, they may have a right to life, but it is clear that you cannot get good results with them. We need new ideas, new principles - so as to overcome this connection between the wavelength and the dimensions of the device, so that it is possible to use devices and elements of these devices much larger in size than the wavelength. And such ideas already exist, and they are being implemented. It's clear. But if we go back a little into history. Those. Still, the most burning question is who, Marconi or Popov. Who are you betting on? Who has a more significant contribution? You see, it is very difficult to single out just one, because after all, the end of the 19th century, when all this happened, was a period of very intensive development of physics. Then X-rays were discovered, then the atom was discovered, the structure of the atom was discovered. At the same time, a number of other interesting effects were discovered. And if we talk about radio, as I understand it, this is my personal point of view. This means that in order to transmit information using radio rays, you need to do something - first, you need to create these radio waves, transmit them, and then receive them. This was realized by Hertz, Heinrich Hertz, who did what - he made a loop, a spark. This means that a high-voltage coil was connected to this loop, a spark jumped, and this spark excited electromagnetic waves. He also received these radiations using a small loop with a small spark gap. This means that when electromagnetic waves reached this loop, they excited a current in it, and a small spark jumped out. To see this spark, he conducted these experiments in complete darkness. It is clear that, in general, this is not very good, yes. Although he obtained an outstanding result - he proved the existence of electromagnetic waves, what Maxwell foresaw and in his equations he showed what it would be, and Hertz confirmed this experimentally only in 1888. But for practical purposes it was... Not enough. Not enough, yes. Who will look into this very spark in the dark? Here. Moreover, how to transmit information using this spark? Only Morse code can somehow be used, that's it. But then the so-called coherer. This is a tube filled with metal filings, which has a lot of resistance between the ends because the filings are coated with metal oxy. But if you expose these sawdust to an electromagnetic wave, then microscopic breakdowns are formed there, and the resistance of these sawdust sharply decreases. This device, which later became known as a coherer, was invented and improved by the English scientist Lodge. And in 1894, in August, at a meeting of the Royal Society of London, he demonstrated signal transmission, where this same spark served as the transmitter, and this same coherer served as the receiver. At a distance of 30 meters, i.e. it was already a radio communication line. And I believe that this very moment was the moment of the discovery of radio. But Lodge did not patent his discovery, and six months later Popov demonstrated this transmission, although in fact here is his article that he published, it was not called “the discovery of radio,” it was called “improving the coherer” of this one. What was this improvement? The fact is that after this coherer was acted upon by an impulse, it began to conduct, but it does not return to the state of high resistance on its own; it must be knocked on in order for it to recover. And earlier they knocked with a hammer, but Popov came up with a relay that itself knocked from the signal, and the coherer restored its resistance, and it was possible to transmit it in this way. As for Marconi, he worked independently of Popov, he demonstrated his transmitter and receiver later than Popov, but he quickly achieved success, and in particular, already in 1901 he built a transmitter that connected America with Europe, i.e. . transmitted information using Morse code, albeit across the Atlantic Ocean. Well, then, in general, this radio communication began to develop rapidly, so it seems to me that these disputes between Popov and Marconi and someone else are mostly empty talk. This was done almost simultaneously and independently of each other. And they participated in this, in general, collectively. Someone invented a coherer, someone improved it, someone replaced the spark transmitter with another transmitter, that’s how it all went. This is the work of many people, such international development. Physics, it turns out, is such an international discipline. Of course, any science is now international. Well, but if you walk further, it means using instruments. Those. There were further generators, all sorts of tube transmitters were indicated, i.e. This is like further growth. Further growth, yes, occurred first on the basis of vacuum devices, this is the so-called. vacuum tubes, electronic devices that used the sweat of electrons, which passed in a high vacuum. This flow of electrons is first accelerated by a constant electric field, and the electrons acquire a certain kinetic energy. Then, due to interaction with an alternating electromagnetic field, part of this kinetic energy is converted into field energy. This is what the action of these vacuum devices is based on. Then semiconductors appeared. And today, semiconductor devices, of course, occupy the majority of the entire range of microwave devices. Moreover, recently here, too, literally in the last few years, a kind of breakthrough has also appeared, new materials have begun to be used. The fact is that the operation of semiconductor devices, in particular the output power of these devices, depends on what material we use as a base in which all these processes occur. So, the first material we used was germanium. Then silicon, and silicon is still used in most semiconductor devices, particularly in computer hardware, in microprocessors, processors use silicon. But these germanium and silicon, they do not allow obtaining high powers and do not allow operating at very high frequencies due to their properties. And recently we have learned to make new materials, the so-called. wide-area, in which the width is so-called. The band gap is several times larger than that of germanium and silicon, and due to this, greater voltage can be applied to them and, accordingly, more power can be obtained. This is silicon carbide, this is gallium nitrite, and this is diamond. These 3 materials have revolutionized semiconductor technology over the past few years. With the help of transistors made on these materials, we were able to obtain such powers that previously we could only obtain with the help of vacuum devices. Well, vacuum devices are always large, bulky devices, right? Well, they, of course, have larger dimensions than a semiconductor. Why - because electrons in a vacuum move quickly, in fact the limit is the speed of light. But in semiconductors they move 1000 times slower. And, accordingly, the distance they travel during one oscillation period is also 1000 times less. And, naturally, the sizes of semiconductor devices are also shrinking. But the power is also reduced, because heat must be removed from it; you can’t remove a lot of heat from such a small device, so there are other problems that do not allow you to get high power from it. However, these new materials have made it possible to increase the power received in the microwave field by an order of magnitude from these devices. And, in addition, there are also lasers. Lasers, as you know, operate successfully in the optical range. But when we want to lower the laser frequency, when we talk about all sorts of vacuum semiconductor devices, we strive to increase their frequency, but here, on the contrary, we want to lower it. And now it all converges to this terahertz failure. It turns out that the lower the frequency the laser produces, the lower its power. For a number of reasons - in particular because they are “low” (because they are high for us, but low for the laser, for optics). At such “low” frequencies, the energy of the quantum emitted by the laser becomes comparable to the energy of thermal radiation if this laser is at room temperature, for example. And this prevents the laser from working, and therefore its power decreases sharply. And so it turns out that in this region of terahertz both classical devices work poorly and quantum devices work poorly. And now we need to fill this gap. Which is what they mostly do now. What is everyone doing now both in Russia and abroad? But if we move on to the scope of application. For example, we have radars, modern radars on all sorts of warships, aircraft, and satellites. Tell me, please, I, so to speak, before the start of the conversation, found out that we have such a “Pantsir” radar station. So, “Pantsir”, by the way, these “Pantsirs” fought in Syria and now, probably, they are still there. Missile systems. Yes, they are called the Pantsir anti-aircraft missile and artillery complex. This is a self-propelled installation, which means that there are several missile launchers with missiles, and artillery pieces, and it is designed to combat mainly air targets - both aircraft, and cruise missiles, and glide bombs. In general, this is a very effective system. In order to guide these weapons to the target, a very accurate radar is needed. And radar, it is the accuracy of determining the target by angle, which means where it is there, and by range. It depends on the wavelength at which the radar operates, because you can determine both angular coordinates and linear coordinates accurate to the wavelength. Those. Accuracy to the nearest cm is achieved practically. Well, not up to cm, but up to tens of cm. Tens of cm. This is cool, of course. Those. somewhere like this. And the distance at which it can work to the target, from the installation itself to the target is...? Well, this is a distance of tens of kilometers. Tens of kilometers, great. In particular, are you involved in some... To some extent, yes. In development itself. Well, now it’s already in service, so it’s not development that’s going on, but deliveries. It's clear. So Andrei Dmitrievich modestly announced his participation a little, but okay. But on ships, satellites, airplanes, i.e. the principles are basically the same everywhere, right? Those. Is this either the detection of some objects or targets? Detecting objects and pointing some kind of weapon at them. But besides this, there are, of course, peaceful uses of radar. There are stations at airfields, without which you cannot land the plane, especially in bad weather. Well, this is what we are talking about GPS navigation already, right? No, GPS is different. GPS is not radar, GPS and GLONASS are coordinate determination systems that also use the microwave range, but this is not radar, that’s it. And I would also like to say a few words about radar; it is the detection of hidden objects on the human body, for example, when passing through the airport, train stations, and other crowded places. This is also done by means - radars in the microwave range, this is also a very important area of ​​​​application of the microwave range. Well, we discussed at the beginning that satellites, again, can scan objects on Earth? This means that satellites can really scan objects, and the satellites also have high-quality optical equipment, with the help of which they can photograph and transmit this picture to the ground in real time. But, unfortunately, clouds interfere with the optical range. And, let’s say, in St. Petersburg there are almost always clouds. And if we move from the optical range to the microwave range, then the situation there improves dramatically, since radiation from the microwave range freely penetrates clouds, even the thickest ones. But in order to obtain a detailed, say, image of the underlying surface under the clouds, again, you need to have a small wavelength, i.e. again we are moving into this terahertz range. Are there satellites that... Or are there currently no instruments in this range at all? No, there is a range, let's say. Moreover, these radars can not only scan the atmosphere, they can also carry out diagnostics of the atmosphere. Here is the presence of clouds, because some of the energy is still reflected from the clouds; the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere, how much of it, and this is not only on earth, but also on other planets, in particular, on Mars there was such a Pathfinder - an American lander, which, therefore, contained a radar operating at a frequency of 95 GHz, which was used to scan the atmosphere of Mars, and we got a lot of information using this radar. He worked there for more than a year, which means that an amplifying klystron was installed there, which operated at a frequency of 95 GHz and illuminated the atmosphere. Well, this picture can be shown to the viewer about the principle of operation of the klystron. This is the operating principle of a klystron. This means that it was invented, as I already said, in 37 by the brothers Varian, Sigurd and Russell, here. They came up with this very simple scheme. This means that there is an electron gun that creates a thin electron beam that passes from this gun, from the cathode, and to the collector, which collects electrons. On the path of this electron beam there are 2 resonators, in which... The first resonator, electromagnetic oscillations are excited in it. And these electromagnetic vibrations affect electrons. This means that when the voltage is accelerating, the speed of the electron increases slightly. And when the voltage for a given electron is braking, its speed slows down. Therefore, at the exit from the resonator, if at the entrance to this first resonator all electrons have approximately the same speeds, then at the exit they are already, as they say, modulated in speed. Those. some go faster, others slower. And then the same thing begins that begins on the highway, when one car drives slower and a tail gathers behind. And here the same thing happens: those electrons that go slower are overtaken by those that came out later, but that go at a higher speed. The only difference is that electrons can pass through each other... Well, not through each other, there is enough space there for them to pass without collisions, unlike cars, that is. But as a result, fast electrons catch up with slow ones, and a sequence of bunches is obtained from a homogeneous flow. One bunch, there is a second such bunch behind it, and this sequence of bunches passes through the second resonator and excites oscillations in it. Moreover, it excites in such a way that the voltage arising on this resonator turns out to be inhibitory for the bunch, and this bunch is inhibited there and transfers part of its energy to this field of the resonator. And as a result, we can derive amplified oscillations from this resonator. This is the principle of operation of the amplifying klystron, which was invented by these same Varian brothers. Today, of course, these klystrons have a much more complex design, but, nevertheless, the principle is the same. Where next? Those. why is this so important? Why was it so important to invent these klystrons? Because that means that’s what was important. The fact is that earlier, when there were no klystrons, it was necessary to use ordinary vacuum tubes to generate oscillations, which have... A triode, for example, which has a cathode, a grid and an anode. But these vacuum tubes cannot operate at high frequencies for a number of reasons, I don’t know if it’s worth explaining. The fact is that if we quickly change the voltage on the control grid, the electrons, which fly at low speeds from the grid to the anode, while they are flying, the voltage can change, even change sign. And as a result, we will not get the desired effect - due to the fact that the time of flight in this interval turns out to be comparable to the period of oscillations. And therefore we cannot obtain high powers and high frequencies using conventional devices. But the invention of the klystron and the somewhat later invention of the magnetron, it radically changed the situation, because these devices use the so-called. a dynamic method of controlling the electron flow due to high-speed modulation, or due to the formation of spokes, as in a magnetron. And this radically changed the situation and made it possible to obtain high powers in the microwave range. And in particular, the invention of the magnetron, if we go for it, in 40 by the English scientists Randell and Booth, it made it possible to create radar stations that could be installed on airplanes. Previously, these radar stations were structures with huge masts, huge antennas, because the power was small, and we needed to somehow do it all. And here is the magnetron, it is a small device itself, simple, but generates great power. This means that it was possible to make a small antenna for this, and it became possible to install these radar stations on airplanes. This radically changed the situation in the so-called. the battle for England, when the Germans tried to suppress and, well, destroy, say, English industry, destroy its fleet and aviation. With the help of these radars installed on airplanes, the British were able to shoot down German bombers at night, in poor visibility conditions, and the losses for the Germans became so large and, most importantly, not so much bombers, but pilots, because the plane could be made new, but pilot... Training a pilot is more difficult. It is not simple. The Germans had to abandon the conquest of England and switch to us. Sadly. Technological progress immediately turned against us. But moving a little away from vacuum devices and devices in general, we touched a little on semiconductor devices. Well, maybe we’ll leave it for next time, but, nevertheless, I’d like to ask a question about something a little different. Those. when I was studying, back in 2005-2006, you were then involved in calculations of electromagnetic fields in various structures, in particular you worked with the LG company, so if you can tell there, what is possible and what is not. And there are theoretical calculations, there are software products that were completed under your leadership. So I think that this would probably be the most interesting thing that could be told, because this is exactly what is happening right now. About antennas in mobile phones, i.e. they are very small, very complex in shape, how they are made, how they are calculated is very interesting. Well, I’ll try to keep it short, because it’s probably already time... Well, there’s still a little bit left. Yes, yes? This means that this problem of modeling a high-frequency magnetic field is indeed very acute, because experimental methods for studying it are either absent or they are very complex, and they are, as they would say now, traumatic. Those. when you bring in some kind of probe in order to measure this field, you thereby violate its structure, which means. And therefore mathematical modeling plays a very important role here. And there is a whole range of software products, today this is already three-dimensional modeling, i.e. we can simulate the electromagnetic field in different environments, in very complex structures consisting of many parts, here. And in particular, this task was set for the St. Petersburg branch of LG Electronics, which has been working with us for several years, and I took part in solving it. The task was to calculate the electromagnetic field of cell phone antennas. The problem is that, as I already said about cell phones, they are a very complex thing. There are, as they say, a lot of details crammed in there. And it turns out that there is no longer room for an antenna, you see, although without an antenna it turns into a toy, so. But there is less and less space for an antenna, and now, due to the transition to the 5th generation, we are moving to higher frequencies, as I already said, the millimeter range, and more complex antennas are required. There is no longer just one antenna, but an antenna array consisting of many phased antennas, the radiation of which must be phased in a certain way in order to create the desired radiation pattern. And this creates great difficulties when calculating, because you need to take into account, firstly, those parts that are in the phone itself, and there are hundreds of different ones - both dielectric and metal, starting with the battery and ending there with sockets for, say, headphones or something else. Many things. And the filling itself is multi-layered, the printed circuit board that is there, the processor, well, the filling is very large. Plus, you need to take into account the influence of your head, you need to take into account the influence of the hand you are holding, and of the entire human body, near which this phone works. So the problem is very complex. And here we are still, we have created this three-dimensional modeling program, which is called RFS - radio frequency simulator in English, and we are gradually making it, which means improvements, now we have the 10th release. Now the task has been set to add something, subtract something, and in this area of ​​modeling, I think we are successfully working together with the LG team, which now employs 2 of my former graduate students who defended their dissertation and are successfully working there. Now they are taking another girl, who is now studying for a master’s degree with me, i.e. I have very good contacts with them. And the problems there are complex. Now there is a new problem, it is of such a specific nature that it is difficult to talk about it popularly, but at least it needs to be solved in the near future. This is the most interesting question, many people talk about the dangers of the electromagnetic field, and here is the effect of the side lobes of radiation on the human head. Well, that was 10 years ago, but over these 10 years have there been any significant changes in this problem? You know, this means that this question, of course, is more about medicine, but what can I answer to this: it means that there are standards for permissible exposure, this is the so-called. the maximum permissible absorbed power in, say, 1 gram of the human body, or in 10 grams, it’s different there. These standards are not taken out of thin air. They were taken on the basis of statistics, which show that if these standards are not exceeded, then nothing bad happens to the person, so. And all modern phones are tested for this so-called. SAR, specific absorption rate, and of course, that all phones that you buy, unless they are from the black market somewhere, they meet these standards. Here is our program, RFS, it allows you to calculate this very value, although then the experiment is still carried out and checked, but this is a complex experiment. And having this program, we can immediately see the maximum power that is absorbed in a person’s head. For this, a model of the head is created, as they say “phantom”, in which there are bones, skin, muscles, and brains, everything is present there, with its own dielectric parameters, and we can estimate this power. If it suddenly turns out that it exceeds the permissible values, then the design needs to be changed, some measures need to be taken. The thing is that the power that, say, a phone develops in transmission mode depends on many factors. The further you are from the base station, the more power you need to transmit the signal. Well, now base stations are installed quite often, and therefore the phone develops its maximum power in exceptional cases, this also makes it easier. Therefore, it seems to me that this anxiety that you will lose your health there because you talk on the phone is hardly justified. It’s unlikely, it’s clear. Although I am not a doctor and, of course, I cannot say this 100%. But it’s also interesting to ask questions about the operating principle of this very program. Those. I’ll tell you a little bit literally, somehow in my fingers, if possible. Firstly, this probably belongs more to the category of theoretical physics and programming, since here we are solving Maxwell’s equation for the electromagnetic field. Well, here's your word. So, let’s say this, this belongs to the field of computational physics, there is now such a branch of physics - computational physics, and computational electrodynamics. The fact is that what an electromagnetic field is: imagine that at each point in space you have 6 numbers. These are 3 components of electric field strength and 3 components of magnetic field strength. It’s hard to imagine, there are 6 numbers at each point, and there are an infinite number of these points. Therefore, we cannot directly calculate such a field on any computer, since a computer cannot deal with an infinite number of unknowns, but these numbers are unknowns, at each point there are 6 unknown numbers, and there are infinitely many points. Therefore, it is necessary to use approximate methods. And one of these possible methods, very universal and very effective, is to break down the volume in which we consider the electromagnetic field into small elements. And in each element, represent this field as a sum of simple functions with unknown coefficients. This means, if we take and break up, say, some volume, take a mobile phone and take some kind of sphere around it, and in this volume we take, say, 100,000 of these elements. In each element we will represent the field as a sum of known functions, but with unknown coefficients, and there are several of these known functions. And as a result, instead of a problem with an infinite number of unknowns, we get a problem with a finite number of unknowns, albeit a very large one. But this is already a solvable problem, it depends on the power of the computer. This so-called finite element method, each small volume is a finite element. So it is used in our program. There are several problems here. First, we need to break this down into finite elements, and not manually, of course, but automatically, taking into account the properties of the materials. Because if your material has a high dielectric constant, its wavelength is shorter and, accordingly, you need more elements, the mesh should be thicker. And in the air it should be less frequent. This is the first thing, this is a so-called mesh generator, this is an independent purely geometric problem, but which must be solved. Then you need to create a system of equations for these unknown functions and, therefore, calculate all the coefficients of these equations. And then you need to solve this system of equations. And then you need to somehow graphically depict the results of the solution, so-called post-processing. This is all being done, and all sorts of tricks are used for this in order to somehow reduce the need for computing power. Today our program allows us to divide this area into several million, with up to 10 million finite elements. And in each finite element use up to 20 functions, i.e. this is already counting into hundreds of elements. And the result is a system of 100 million unknowns, which means 100 million equations with 100 million unknowns, and this system is solved. It can be solved, well, it depends, of course, on what computer you are doing it on, but on modern powerful workstations it can be solved, say, in an hour. Those. you launch all the parameters and sit and wait for an hour, roughly speaking. Well, you create a geometric model. By the way, this geometric model is also not easy to create, because, as I already said, there are hundreds of parts in the phone, not to mention the head, hand and other parts of the body. Therefore, this geometric model is imported from the phone developers, they have such a model in computer-aided design systems, AutoCAD, for example. Here we import it. But the properties of objects that we need to calculate the electromagnetic field are not indicated there. This means that we must assign some properties to each part, and then create a mesh and carry out the remaining stages of the solution. And this is the final result, how is it – both graphically and in the form of graphs, right? This means that the end result, for example, is important to know, here we have a generator that works for the antenna. But the fact is that not all of the generator’s energy is emitted by this antenna, but some is reflected back. And it is important to know which part is reflected. The smaller it is, the better. Therefore, a graph of, say, reflection coefficient as a function of frequency is displayed. You can derive, for example, the distribution of some component, the desired component of the electric field along a curve or on a plane that you yourself define, here, in volume. You can derive, as I already said, this specific absorbed power. You can display, say, such parameters as the efficiency of the antenna, the radiation pattern of the antenna, in which direction it shines and in which direction it does not shine, and a lot of such things that this program allows you to calculate after it solves this problem. Moreover, it solves this problem in the frequency range, as a rule. We set the frequency range, the step with which this frequency changes, and solve this problem, just like that. It's clear. I think on this note we will interrupt our conversation today. Perhaps we will be able to invite Andrei Dmitrievich to visit us again with some other topic, or expand this one, because we have not touched on quite a lot of issues. Once again, for the audience, I would like to say, well, to make such a summary in what terms - we don’t have many people left who, from, say, the post-war period, began to study, develop our science, technology, and it’s not good to say that , but have survived to our times. Because since, say, even I finished studying, many professors have passed away. And now we can turn to them in order to find out how they lived, how they built science, how they built their lives. And we know that during the Soviet period, science flourished in our country, so to speak. And I would like, having communicated with them, in some way, perhaps, to throw information into this media space that, perhaps, our science, so to speak, is not completely dead, but can flourish. And in it, in particular, people like Andrei Dmitrievich are still working, working, despite the fact that Andrei Dmitrievich celebrated his 80th birthday, as we have already said. Therefore, we all need to be energized by the presence of such people, and communicate and meet with them more and more often. I’m very glad to talk to you, thank you. And thank you very much for listening to me, and I hope that our potential viewers will be interested in the issues that we discussed here. Goodbye everyone.

Series “Pages of the history of our Motherland”

G.Z.Ioffe

Series “Pages of the history of our Motherland”

The series was founded in 1977

G. 3. Ioffe

"WHITE CASE"

General Kornilov

Executive editor Doctor of Historical Sciences V. P. NAUMOV

MOSCOW SCIENCE 1989

Reviewer

BBK 63.3(2)7 I75

Doctor of Historical Sciences G. I. ZLOKAZOV

Ioffe G. 3.

I75 “White matter”. General Kornilov/Responsible ed. V. P. Naumov. - M.: Nauka, 1989. - 291 p., ill. - (Series

"Pages of the history of our Motherland").

18YOU 5-02-008533-2.

The book, on a strictly documentary basis, recreates the political history of the “white movement”, the history of the struggle between “whites” and “reds”, which ended in the complete victory of red, workers’ and peasants’ Russia. The author reveals the anti-people essence of the “white cause”, its desire to restore the bourgeois-landowner order in the country.

For a wide range of readers.

and 0503020400-186 042(02)-89

18-88 NP

BBK 03.3(2)7

Popular scientific publication by Ioffe Genrikh Zinovievich “WHITE CASE”.

General Kornilov

Approved for publication

Editorial Board of Popular Science Publications of the USSR Academy of Sciences Editor of the publishing house M. A. Vasiliev. Artist V. Yu. Kuchenkov, Art editor I. D. Bogachev. Technical editors M. and. Dzhioeva, A, S. Barkhina. Proofreaders V. A. Aleshkina,

L. I. Voronina

IB No. 38259

Delivered to set 02/10/89. Signed for publication on May 26, 1989. A-09889.

Format 84 X 108 "/z 2 - Printing paper No. 1. Ordinary typeface. Letterpress stamp, Uel. oven l. 15.33. Academic ed. l. 17.0, Uel. cr. Ott. 15.65. Circulation 50,000 copies. Type. zak. 2590. Price 1 rub. 50 k.

Publishing house "Nauka" 117864, GSP-7, Moscow. B-485, Profsoyuznaya st., 60

2nd printing house of the publishing house "Nauka"

121099, Moscow, G-99, Shubinsky lane, 10

18В1Ч 5-02-008533-2 © Nauka Publishing House, 1989

The binding reproduces a photograph of the meeting of L. G. Kornilov, who arrived at the State Meeting (Moscow, August 1917),

Introduction

What is a “white matter”?

In the pre-war years, all the boys played “red” and “white”. It was not difficult for anyone to answer the question of who the “whites” were. The “Whites” were bourgeoisie and landowners who sought to return the people to their previous, oppressed state. Numerous colorful posters essentially confirmed this. On them, people with plump bellies, in caps and bowler hats - merchants and capitalists - were holding rampaging dogs on leashes, on which was written: Denikin, Wrangel, Yudenich, Kolchak...

When the Art Theater staged “Days of the Turbins” by M. Bulgakov in 1926, it caused something of a shock. The counter-revolutionary officers looked like ordinary, honest, even somewhat pleasant people!

Rapp's criticism sharply attacked the play, accusing the author of “conciliation” towards the class enemy - the White Guards, and worse - of sympathizing with the “Whites”, of striving to rehabilitate them, etc.

But the point was, of course, not in the malicious narrow-mindedness of the Rappovites. V. Mayakovsky, who, by the way, also took part in the criticism of Bulgakov, seems to have accurately captured the peculiarity of his contemporary perception of the White Guard counter-revolution:

Historians with Hydra will pull out the posters -“

Why was this hydra, or what?

And we knew this hydra in its natural size!

And in the same Mayakovsky’s poem “Good!” suddenly we encounter such a picture of the flight of class-hated

And over white decay

falling like a bullet,

for both

knee

the commander-in-chief fell.

Kissed the ground three times, three times

city

baptized

Under the bullets

jumped into the boat...

- Yours

Excellency,

row? -

- Row!

These two poetic passages deeply reflect two truths: the truth of our attitude towards the “whites”, the truth of our fierce struggle against them that has not yet cooled down, and the truth of the “whites” themselves, who loved that Russia that was irrevocably gone under the blows of the revolution, but with their minds and hearts who took this care...

The “White Cause” or “White Movement” is an integral part of our history, but how much do we know about it even now? In the 20s, memoirs of some White Guard “leaders” and political leaders associated with them were still published, and books devoted to the counter-revolution appeared. In the 1930s, all this practically stopped.

It seems that today’s schoolchildren (and not only them) will answer the question about “whites” even less intelligibly than those boys who once selflessly played “whites” and “reds” answered. Although the nature of the answers will still be different. Influenced by our cinematic “westerns” about the civil war, “whites” will most likely appear in the guise of polished guards officers whining in restaurants about “God Save the Tsar” and old Russian romances. Few people will say what many “brilliant officers” did in the territories “liberated” from the “Reds”. According to V. Shulgin, one of the ideologists of the “white cause,” it happened that “falcons soared not as eagles, but as thieves.” The White Terror remained in the memory of the people for a long time... Is there any fault in this “ignorance” of those responsible? After all, historical literature did not and does not give them the necessary “material”,

However, in fairness it should be said that the answer to such a question is not one of the simple ones. Even in White émigré historiography, for which the history of the counter-revolution was naturally in the center of attention, the question of the content of the concept of “White movement” caused heated debate.

What is the “white movement”, “white cause”?

Where are its origins?

What forces formed its support?

What did they oppose to Soviet power and what did they prepare for Russia in the event of their victory?

Why did they fail?

As one of the readers correctly said, “the element of historical knowledge is debate.” The dispute may never end.

Revolution and civil war are a huge layer of our history, an entire era that appears before us with a thousand sides and facets, filled with the drama of struggle, defeats and victories. It is wrong to think that this is just yesterday’s world that has sunk into oblivion. No, he lives, speaks, screams, demands attention, insists on understanding, on justice. Every historian who has consulted documents of that era knows and feels this well.

How to tell about this?

Every historical description bears the imprint of the emotions and originality of the historian’s thoughts. Among other reasons, time changes it the most. In descriptions that are closer to events, there is more emotion, or at least it is felt more strongly. In descriptions from which events have already been removed into the depths of history, thought is allowed to prevail.

This does not mean that in this case the work of the historian becomes dispassionate. It’s just that the distance of time allows us to approach the subject of knowledge with a deeper understanding.

And again art and poetry go ahead of historical science here, showing it the way. We started with poems by V. Mayakovsky, written in the mid-20s, and I would like to end with poems by R. Rozhdestvensky. Already today he visited the Parisian cemetery of St.

Chenieve-des-Bois, where many participants of the “white movement” are buried:

I touch history with my palm.

G.Z. Ioffe. Kolchak's adventure and its collapse.

This book is about Kolchakism, or “Kolchakia,” as V.I. Lenin also called it. Two main circumstances determined the choice of this particular topic. During the years of the civil war and foreign intervention, several counter-revolutionary formations arose in different regions of the former Russian Empire, but “Kolchakia” was the largest of them. Even more significant is that it was Kolchak’s rule that laid claim to “all-Russian” significance and international recognition. By the end of the summer of 1919, it had actually achieved the first (all other “white governments” declared their submission to the “supreme ruler” Kolchak) and was very close to the second. “Kolchakia”, thus, tried to appear before the world as “real Russia”, fighting against “illegal” Soviet power.

From the publisher.

After 1991, the author of the book, Genrikh Zinovievich Ioffe, changed his shoes somewhat, but not as shamefully as some (many) Soviet historians did, and in general his both Soviet and post-Soviet books are of interest to everyone interested in Soviet history.

PDF file (with OCR).

File size 8 megabytes.