The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th–14th centuries. The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th century. Prerequisites for the Tatar-Mongol conquest of Rus'

Mongol Empire

Political fragmentation and constant princely strife facilitated the implementation of large-scale plans of the Mongol-Tatars, begun by the leader of the Mongol tribes, Khan Temujin (Temujin) (c. 1155-1227). In 1206 kurultai(congress of the Mongolian nobility) he was proclaimed Genghis Khan (Great Khan) and founded Mongol Empire.

At the end of the 12th century. among the Mongol tribes roaming the steppes of Central Asia, the process of decomposition of the tribal system and the formation of early feudal relations began.

The reign of Genghis Khan influenced the development of the political and spiritual culture of the population of many Asian regions. Throughout the territory of the Mongol Empire, a single set of laws began to operate - the Great Yasa (Jasak), formulated by Genghis Khan. It was one of the most brutal sets of laws in the entire history of mankind; For almost all types of crimes, only one type of punishment was provided - the death penalty.

The success of the conquests and the large size of the Mongol army are explained not only by the fact that Genghis Khan was able to unite the nomadic tribes of the Asian steppes, but also by the fact that the inhabitants of the territories he captured often joined the Mongol army. They preferred to participate in military raids and receive their share of the spoils than to bear duties in favor of the Mongol treasury.

In 1208-1223. The Mongols carried out campaigns of conquest in Siberia, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Northern China and began to advance towards Russian lands.

The first clash between Russian and Mongol troops took place in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River (1223). The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops. As a result of this battle, the Cuman state was destroyed, and the Cumans themselves became part of the state created by the Mongols.

In 1236, the huge army of Batu Khan (Batu) (1208-1255), the grandson of Genghis Khan, moved to Volga Bulgaria. In 1237 Batu invaded Rus'. Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal, Moscow were plundered and burned, and the southern Russian lands (Chernigov, Kiev, Galicia-Volyn, etc.) were devastated.

In 1239, Batu began a new campaign against Russian soil. Murom and Gorokhovets were captured and burned. In December 1240 Kyiv was taken. Then the Mongol troops moved into Galician-Volyn Rus. In 1241, Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Moldavia, and in 1242 he reached Croatia and Dalmatia. Having lost significant forces on Russian soil, Batu returned to the Volga region, where he founded a state Golden Horde(1242).

The consequences of the invasion were extremely severe. First of all, the country's population has declined sharply. The cities suffered the most from the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The invasion dealt a heavy blow to productive forces. Many production skills were lost, and entire craft professions disappeared. Rus''s international trade relations suffered. Numerous written monuments and outstanding works of art were destroyed.

The Golden Horde occupied the territory of a significant part of modern Russia. The Golden Horde included the steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Siberia, lands in the Crimea, the North Caucasus, Volga-Kama Bulgaria, and Northern Khorezm. The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai (near modern Astrakhan).

In relation to the Russian lands, the Golden Horde pursued a cruel predatory policy. All Russian princes were confirmed on the throne by the khans, and certainly in the capital of the Golden Horde. The princes were given shortcuts- Khan's letters confirming their appointment. Often, during visits to the Horde, princes disliked by the Mongol-Tatars were killed. The Horde maintained power over Russia through constant terror. Horde detachments led by baskaks (officials) were stationed in Russian principalities and cities to monitor the proper collection and receipt of tribute from Rus' to the Horde. In order to record tribute payers, a population census was conducted in Russian lands. The khans exempted only the clergy from taxes. To keep Russian lands in obedience and for predatory purposes, Tatar detachments carried out frequent punitive raids on Rus'. Only in the second half of the 13th century. there were fourteen such campaigns.

The masses resisted the Horde's policy of oppression. In 1257, the Novgorodians refused to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. In 1262, popular uprisings took place in many cities of the Russian land - Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Ustyug the Great, Vladimir. Many tribute collectors - Baskaks - were killed.

Expansion from the West

Simultaneously with the establishment of Mongol rule over the Russian principalities, the northwestern Russian lands were attacked by crusader troops. The invasion of German knights into the Eastern Baltic began in the 10th century. Supported by the merchants of the northern German cities and the Catholic Church, the knighthood began the “Drang nach Osten” - the so-called “onslaught to the east”. By the 12th century. German feudal lords captured the Eastern Baltic. After the name of the Liv tribe, the Germans called the entire captured territory Livonia. In 1200, Canon Albert of Bremen, sent there by the Pope, founded the Riga fortress. On his initiative, the spiritual knightly order of the Swordsmen was created in 1202. The order was faced with the task of capturing the Baltic states by German feudal lords. In 1215-1216 The crusaders captured the territory of Estonia. In 1234, the Order of the Swordsmen was defeated by Russian troops in the Yuryev area (Tartu). In 1237, the Order of the Sword, renamed the Livonian Order, became a branch of a larger spiritual knightly order, the Teutonic Order, created in 1198 for campaigns in Palestine. The threat of invasion by the Crusaders and Swedish troops loomed over Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk.

In 1240, the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich (1221-1263) defeated the Swedish invaders at the mouth of the Neva, for which he received the nickname Nevsky. In 1240, the crusading knights occupied the Pskov fortress of Izborsk, and then fortified themselves in Pskov itself. In 1241, the order invaded the Novgorod borders. In response to this, in 1241 Alexander Nevsky captured the Koporye fortress, and in the winter of 1242 he liberated Pskov from the crusaders. Then the princely Vladimir-Suzdal squad and the Novgorod militia moved to Lake Peipsi, on the ice of which a decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The battle that went down in history as Battle on the Ice, ended in the complete defeat of the crusaders.

Plan

1.Tatar-Mongol conquest of Rus'.

2. The struggle of Rus' against the expansion of the West.

Guidelines

Invasion of Batu. Conquest of North-Eastern and Southern Rus'. Establishment of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Rus' and the Golden Horde. Tribute, baskaki, labels. Consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion and the establishment of the yoke for the further development of Rus'.
Containing the onslaught of Hungary, Poland and Germany by the Galician-Volyn princes Roman Mstislavich and Daniil Romanovich. Their relationship with Rome. The struggle of the Novgorodians with the Swedes and German crusading knights. Alexander Nevskiy. Battle of the Neva and Battle of the Ice. Their significance for Rus'.

Test

Match:

1. 1223. 2. 1237. 3. 1240. 4. 1242.

I. Battle of the Neva.

II. The beginning of Batu's invasion.

III. Battle of Kalka.

IV. Battle on the Ice

A. Germans B. Swedes C. Mongol-Tatars

Topic 6

The rise of Moscow and the creation of a unified Russian state.

Plan

The rise of Moscow.
Stages of the liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
Formation of a unified Russian state.
Test.

Guidelines

1. The first chronicle mention of Moscow. Formation of the Moscow Principality. The beginning of the rise of Moscow under Ivan Kalita. His reasons. Consolidation of lands around Moscow. Population influx. Moscow's struggle for the Vladimir label. Events of 1327. The right to collect tribute. Construction of cities, development of agriculture and crafts. Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter.

2. Dmitry Donskoy - the great successor of Ivan Kalita. Battle of Kulikovo. The role of the church in the unification process. Metropolitan Alexy I and Sergius of Radonezh. Stopping trips of Moscow princes to the Horde for labels. The beginning of the transformation of the great Vladimir-Moscow principality into a single Russian state under the successors of Dmitry Donskoy. Feudal war for the Moscow throne under Vasily II. His religious policy.

3. Completion of the unification process under Ivan III and Vasily III. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Autocratic rule and its specifics. The beginning of the formation of the state apparatus. "Moscow-Third Rome". "Code of Law" of Ivan III. The role of Sophia Paleolog.

Test

Match:

1. 1147. 2. 1276. 3. 1327. 4. 1328.

2. 1325-1340. 6. 1367. 7. 1375. 8. 1462-1505. 9. 1523.

II. Construction of the white stone Kremlin in Moscow.

III. Tver's final recognition of Moscow's political primacy.

IV. The reign of Ivan Kalita.

V. The first mention of Moscow.

VI. Transformation of Moscow into the religious capital of Rus'.

VII. Formation of the Moscow Principality.

VIII. Completion of the unification process in Russian lands.

IX. Moscow princes become collectors of Tatar tribute.

X. Reign of Ivan III.

Topic 7

The history of the struggle and relations between Rus' and the Mongol-Tatars.

Plan

Conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars.
Mongol-Tatar yoke.
Stages of the liberation of Rus' from the Mongol-Tatars.
The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
Test.

Guidelines

1. Genghis Khan and Mongol expansion in Asia. The first armed clash between Russians and Mongol-Tatars. Batu's campaign against Rus'. Fall of Ryazan. Evpatiy Kolovrat. An attempt to create a collective defense of Rus' by the Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich. Battle of the City River. Conquest of North-Eastern and Southern Rus'. "Evil Town" Kozelsk. Factors for the victory of the Mongolo-Tatars.

2. Formation of the Golden Horde. The first census of the Russian population by Mongolo-Tatars and outbreaks of armed clashes. Tribute. Bessermen, Baskaks. The struggle of Russian princes for labels in the Horde is a tragic page in Russian history. Negative consequences of foreign yoke.

3. “Cholkhanov’s army” - the end of Baskaism. “The Great Mess” in the Horde in the mid-14th century. and ending the tradition of labels. Military clashes between Russians and Tatars in the 50-70s of the 14th century. The Battle of Kulikovo is the first major battle between the Russians and the Mongol-Tatars after Batu. Its historical significance. Tokhtamysh's campaign against Moscow.

4. Horde policy of Moscow princes in the 15th century. The “Great Standing” on the Ugra River is the end of the yoke. The collapse of the unity of the Golden Horde at the end of the 15th century. Conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan by Ivan IV. Crimean Tatar raids on Moscow in the 16th century. Construction of a notching line.

Test

The Tatar-Mongol yoke stimulated unifying tendencies in Rus' due to the fact that:

The Russian people and princes became acquainted with power, which had to be obeyed unquestioningly.
The Tatars abolished the importance of the Grand Duke.
The tax policy of the Tatars towards the Orthodox Church contributed to its promotion to the role of ideologist of the unification process, contrary to the hopes of the conquerors.

Topic No. 8

History of the development of serfdom in Rus'.

Plan

1. Formation of serfdom in Rus'.

2. Legal registration of serfdom.

3. The apogee of serfdom and its decay.

Guidelines

1. Definition of the essence of serfdom. Its elements in Rus' until the 15th century. Intensive growth of feudal land ownership in the XIV - XV centuries. and new social phenomena: the complete absorption of the free rural community by the feudal lords and the state; strengthening of noble estates, unification of the rural population and the beginning of its enslavement on a national scale. “The Code of Law of Ivan III” of 1497 - the introduction of the St. George’s Day rule for the landowner peasants and the extension of state taxes to them. The displacement of the boyar estate by the noble estate in the 16th century. An increase in the number of feudal lords and increased enslavement of peasants. "Code of Law of Ivan IV". A sharp deterioration in the situation of serfs due to the oprichnina and the Livonian War. Introduction of reserved and lesson years.

2. The economic ruin of the country during the Time of Troubles. Mass exodus of peasants to the outskirts of the state. Their participation in the anti-feudal movements of Khlopok and Bolotnikov. Increase in school years in the first half of the 17th century. “The Conciliar Code” of Alexei Mikhailovich is a legal formalization of serfdom with a 300-year lag behind the countries of Western Europe. Reasons for the conservation of the feudal serf system in Russia. Peasants' reaction to enslavement. Movement of S. Razin.

3. The 18th century is the apogee of serfdom in Russia. The spread of serfdom to new categories of the population at the beginning of the 18th century. and to new regions at the end of the 18th century. The growth of state duties and taxes of peasants under Peter I. Strengthening of judicial and police power and economic guardianship of landowners over peasants in the second half of the 18th century. “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” A.N. Radishchev is a verdict on the serfdom of Russia. The Peasant War under the leadership of E. Pugachev is the last and most powerful anti-feudal movement in the history of Russia.

Test

Match:

1. 1467. 2. 1497. 3. 1550. 4. 1581. 5. 1597. 6. 1649.

I "Code of Law of Ivan IV".

II "Conciliar Code of Alexei Mikhailovich."

III “Decree on scheduled summers.”

IV "Pskov Judgment Charter".

V "Code of Law of Ivan III".

VI “Decree on reserved years.”

A. Temporary cancellation of St. George's Day.

B. Legal registration of serfdom.

B. Introduction of Philip Day.

D. Establishment of a five-year search period for fugitive peasants.

D. Prohibition of crossing for old-timer peasants, increase in the “elderly”, introduction of tolls.

E. Introduction to St. George's Day.

Topic 9

Formation of the Russian centralized state in the 16th century.

Plan

Ivan the Terrible and features of Russian centralization.
State reforms of Ivan the Terrible.
Oprichnina.
Test.

Guidelines

1. Ivan IV the Terrible - sovereign and man. Goals and directions of his domestic policy. Elected Rada - development of a project of government reforms. Specifics of centralization of power in Russia. State and church: the nature of the relationship.

2. Implementation of state reforms by Ivan IV in the middle of the 16th century. Zemsky Sobor. Stoglavy Cathedral. Orders. Streltsy and militia army. Bit books. Canceling feedings. Lip reform. The meaning of reforms.

3. The role of the oprichnina in the history of the formation of a centralized state. Introduction of oprichnina, its goals, essence and nature of implementation. The influence of the oprichnina on the agrarian revolution of the 16th century. Negative consequences of oprichnina.

Test

Is this statement true?

Unlike the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization of the Russian state was accompanied by the enslavement of peasants and was caused not so much by internal as by foreign policy reasons.

Topic 10

Achievements and miscalculations of Russian foreign policy in the 16th century.

Plan

Goals and directions of Russian foreign policy in the 16th century.
Expansion of Russia's borders in the East.
Livonian War.
Test.

Guidelines

1. Completion of the unification of Russian lands in the first third of the 16th century. The beginning of the expansion of the borders of the Russian state under Ivan IV. Goals, nature and directions of his foreign policy. Allies and enemies of Russia. Connections with England.

2. Russia’s relationship with the Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean khanates and the Nogai Horde in the first half of the 16th century. Diplomatic expansion of Turkey in the Volga region and Crimea. Capture of Kazan and Astrakhan by the Russian army. Annexation of Bashkiria, the Urals and the Urals. The beginning of penetration into Siberia. Ermak. Raids of the Crimean Tatars. Construction of a notch line. Successes of Russia in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia under Ivan IV and Boris Godunov.

3. Livonian War. Reason and reasons. Opposing countries. The influence of internal difficulties on the conduct of war. Pskov defense. Results of the war - Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty. Reasons for Russia's defeat. Partial elimination of the consequences of the war under B. Godunov - Tyavzinsky peace.

Test

1. 1552. 2. 1556. 3. 1557. 4. 1558. 5. 1581/2. 6. 1582. 7. 1583.

8. 1595. 9. 1571.

I. Defense of Pskov.

II. The beginning of the Livonian War.

III. Capture of Kazan.

IV. Annexation of Bashkiria.

V. Yam-Zapolsky world.

VI. Capture of Astrakhan.

VII. Defeat of the Siberian Khanate.

VIII. The last raid of the Crimean Tatars on Moscow.

IX. Tyavzinsky peace with Sweden.

Topic 11

The Great Troubles in Russia.

Plan

Causes and essence of the Troubles.
False Dmitry I and Vasily Shuisky.
The Seven Boyars and the expulsion of the interventionists from Russia.
Results of the Troubles.
Test.

Guidelines

1. The attitude of the people towards Boris Godunov. Great famine. Popular anti-feudal movements. Imposture. The role of the Romanov boyars in the events of the Time of Troubles. Interests of Poland and Sweden in Russia.

2. The beginning of the Troubles. The campaign of False Dmitry I against Moscow. Reasons for the short duration of his reign. The reign of Vasily Shuisky. Peasant war under the leadership of I. Bolotnikov. Tushino thief. Polish-Swedish intervention. The fall of Smolensk, Novgorod, the siege of Pskov.

3. Seven Boyars. Calling to the throne of the Polish prince Vladislav. The first Ryazan people's militia of P. Lyapunov and its failure. The second Nizhny Novgorod people's militia. Kuzma Minin, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, Patriarch Hermogenes. Expulsion of interventionists from Russia. The end of the Troubles. Convocation of the Zemsky Sobor and election of M. Romanov to the kingdom.

4. Consequences of the Troubles. Establishment in Russia of a new ruling dynasty and a new form of government. Entering the historical arena of the broad masses. The birth of elements of social self-awareness. Redistribution of leading roles within the ruling class. Foreign policy results: Pillar Peace with Sweden, Deulino Truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Test

Indicate the consequences of the Troubles:

Strengthening the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Economic stabilization of the country.
The accession of the Romanov dynasty.
Growth of the territory of the state.
The birth of absolutism.
Strengthening the positions of the boyars.
The beginning of mass popular anti-feudal movements.
Establishment in the public consciousness of the ideas of the unity of the “whole land” of Russia and the chosenness of the Romanov family by God.
The emergence of elements of legal regulation of state relations.

Topic 12

Russia on the threshold of the New Age (XVII century).

Plan

Socio-political development of Russia in the 17th century.
The birth of capitalism.
Russian foreign policy.
Test.

Guidelines

1. New phenomena in the socio-political life of the country. The first Romanovs. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich the Quiet is a key figure of the 17th century. Absolutism, its national specificity and forms of manifestation. Domestic policy is the social stabilizer of the “rebellious” century. Mass popular movements. Peasant war under the leadership of S. Razin. “Cathedral Code”: legal registration of the class system and serfdom. Church reform of Patriarch Nikon. The appearance of schismatics.

2. New phenomena in the economy. Development of crafts and the formation of a national market. The first all-Russian fairs and private manufactories. Specifics of the labor market and initial capital accumulation. The beginning of protectionism - “New Trade Charter”.

3. Objectives of Russian foreign policy after the Time of Troubles. Wars with Poland and Sweden. Return of Russian cities and lands. Reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Pereyaslavl Rada. Relations between Russia and Turkey. Capture of Azov by the Cossacks. The first Russian-Turkish war. Azov campaigns V.V. Golitsyn. Russia's access to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Annexation of Eastern Siberia and the Far East.

Test

Highlight the main factor in the formation of absolutism in Russia in the 17th century:

Underdevelopment of legal consciousness in society.
Uncertainty and insecurity of people's personal rights.
Lack of political counterbalance to the feudal nobility on the part of the bourgeoisie.
Foreign policy needs of the state.
Bureaucracy and bribery in government agencies.
Slow formation of the bourgeoisie under the determining influence of state structures.
Consolidation of the old feudal classes.
The severity of inter-class contradictions.

Key dates and events.

1223 - the first clash of Russian troops with Mongol-Tatar troops on the Kalka River (the Russians were defeated)

1236 - defeat of the Volga Bulgaria by the Mongol-Tatars

1237 - 1238 - Batu’s first campaign against Rus'

1239 - 1242 - Batu's II campaign against Rus'

1240 - Battle of the Neva

1242 - Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi

1252 - 1263 - years of reign of Alexander Nevsky

Mongol-Tatar invasion and establishment of the yoke over Russia.

By the time the invasion of Russian territory began, the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan managed to conquer the Buryat, Yakutov tribes, the Jin Empire (China), Khorezm, Transcaucasia and began to threaten the territories controlled by the Polovtsian tribes. At this time, the Russian princes were on friendly terms with the Polovtsy, so the Polovtsy, together with the Russian princes, 1223 They put up a united army against the Mongols and, despite their numerical superiority, were defeated on the river. Kalke.

After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 His empire, which had grown by this time, was divided among his sons. One of the conqueror's grandsons, Batu, led a trip to Europe (1235). Along the way, Volga Bulgaria was conquered and a number of tribes that lived in the neighborhood. IN 1237 Tatar troops appear at the borders of the river. Voronezh and begin a powerful attack on the southern lands of Rus'. Ryazan, Moscow, Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir were destroyed. On his first campaign against Rus', Batu was unable to reach Novgorod and his army turned back. The military invasion was renewed in 1239. The Mongols defeated the scattered forces of the Russian princes and took Murom, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, and Kyiv. Batu's army reached the Adriatic Sea and 1242 g. suddenly returned to the steppes, which was associated with the death of one of the sons of Genghis Khan - Ogedei. New elections for the Great Khan were coming up, and Batu considered participation in these elections more important than further advancement to the West. As a result, it was established over Russia yoke(dominance) of the Mongol-Tatars.

In the east of Rus', the Golden Horde was formed in 1243, a state formation led by Khan Batu. A system of relations was established between the Horde and Russia, which was based on payment by the Russian princes tribute Tatars In addition, a system for approving all Russian princes who were to receive in the Horde was determined label, giving them the right to reign.

Consequences of the invasion:

Lagging behind Europe after 240 years of yoke
Population reduction, destruction of cities and villages
Vassal dependence on the Horde - tribute, labels, systematic raids
Reduction of cultivated area
Confirmation of autocratic power.

The struggle of northwestern Rus' against the aggression of Swedish and German knights.

Sweden, Baltics - goals → capture of new lands

→ spread of Catholicism

July 1240 - Battle of Neva.

The Swedes ascended the Neva in order to cover the Novgorod land with “pincers”: from the west - the Germans, from the north-west - the Swedes => lightning attack by Russian squads and the militia of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich => the Swedes were defeated. Reasons for the defeat of the Swedes: the heroism of the Novgorod warriors, the talent of Alexander Nevsky (surprise, blocked the Swedes’ retreat to the ships, divided the enemy into pieces with infantry and cavalry). Victory value: Novgorod concentrated all its forces against the German knights.

April 1242 - Battle on the Ice.

The tactics of the knights are to break through the Russian defenses with a “pig” wedge and break them piece by piece.

Tactics of Alexander Nevsky => encirclement of the enemy, the ice cannot withstand the heavily armed Germans. Reasons for the Russian victory: Alexander Nevsky's talent: choosing a place for a decisive battle, knowledge of enemy tactics (pig formation), skillful deployment of the Russian army, heroism of Russian soldiers. Victory value: Novgorod and Pskov lands retained their independence. Preventing further invasion of Russian lands. Prince Alexander Nevsky canonized.

Topic: The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th century.

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Tula 2010

1. Mongol-Tatar conquest of Rus'

The Mongol-Tatar yoke is of great importance in the history of Russia. The yoke lasted for almost two and a half centuries and during this long period it left a significant imprint on the Russian people.

The unification and strengthening of the Mongol tribes occurred at the beginning of the 13th century. This was mainly facilitated by the diplomatic and military activities of Temujin (Genghis Khan), who at that time was the leader of the Mongols and it is he who is considered the founder of the powerful Mongol empire.

The first Mongol campaigns were against the peoples of Siberia and China. Having conquered them in 1219-1221, they undertook campaigns in Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, the Caucasus and the Polovtsian steppes. Having defeated part of the Polovtsians, they began to advance towards Russian lands. Then one of the Polovtsian khans, Kotyan, turned to the Russian princes for help.

“In 1223 an unknown people appeared; an unheard of army came, godless Tatars, about whom no one knows well who they are and where they came from, and what kind of language they have, and what tribe they are, and what kind of faith they have... The Polovtsians could not resist them and ran to the Dnieper. Their Khan Kotyan was the father-in-law of Mstislav Galitsky; he came with a bow to the prince, his son-in-law, and to all the Russian princes..., and said: The Tatars took our land today, and tomorrow they will take yours, so protect us; If you don’t help us, then we will be cut off today, and you will be cut off tomorrow.”

However, not all Russian lands sent their troops. There was no unity between the princes participating in the campaign. Having lured the Russian army into the steppes, the Mongol-Tatars inflicted a crushing defeat on May 31, 1223 at the Battle of the Kalka River.

The hike began in April when the rivers were in full flood. The troops were heading down the Dnieper. The command was exercised by the Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich the Good and Mstislav Mstislavich the Udal, who were cousins. Just before the Russian offensive, Mongol-Tatar ambassadors arrived in Rus', who assured that they would not touch the Russians if they did not go to the aid of their neighbors.

On the 17th day of the campaign, the army stopped near Olshen, somewhere on the banks of the Ros. There he was found by the second Tatar embassy. Unlike the first time, when the ambassadors were killed, these were released. Immediately after crossing the Dnieper, Russian troops encountered the enemy’s vanguard, chased it for 8 days, and on the eighth day they reached the bank of the Kalka River (now the Kalchik River, a tributary of the Kalmius River, in the Donetsk region, Ukraine). Here Mstislav the Udaloy and some princes immediately crossed the Kalka, leaving Mstislav of Kyiv on the other bank.

According to the Laurentian Chronicle, the battle took place on May 31, 1223. The troops that crossed the river were almost completely destroyed. The onslaught of the brave squad of Mstislav the Udal, who almost broke through the ranks of the nomads, was not supported by other princes and all his attacks were repulsed. The Polovtsian detachments, unable to withstand the blows of the Mongol cavalry, fled, disrupting the battle formations of the Russian army. The camp of Mstislav of Kyiv, set up on the other bank and heavily fortified, the troops of Jebe and Subedei stormed for 3 days and were able to take only by cunning and deceit, when the prince, believing the promises of Subedei, stopped resistance.

As a result of this, Mstislav the Good and his entourage were brutally destroyed, Mstislav the Udaloy fled. The Russian losses in this battle were very high, six princes were killed, and only a tenth of the soldiers returned home.

Only a tenth of the Russian army returned from the campaign, however, despite the success, the Mongol-Tatars unexpectedly turned back to the steppe.

The Battle of Kalka was lost not so much due to civil strife between the princes, but more due to historical factors:

Jebe's army was tactically and positionally completely superior to the united regiments of the Russian princes, who had in their ranks mostly princely squads, reinforced in this case by the Polovtsians.
The Russian squads, unlike the Mongol army, did not have a single commander.
The Russian princes made a mistake in assessing the enemy's strength and were unable to choose a convenient place for the battle.

The army of Jebe and Subedey, having defeated the militia of the southern Russian princes on Kalka, entered the Chernigov land, reached Novgorod-Seversky and turned back.

In 1235, a pan-Mongol campaign to the west was announced. The Great Khan Udegei sent Batu, the head of the Juchi ulus, as reinforcement to conquer Volga Bulgaria, Diit-Kinchak and Rus' with the main forces of the Mongol army under the command of Subedey. In total, 14 “princes”, descendants of Genghis Khan, took part in the campaign with their hordes. All winter the Mongols gathered in the upper reaches of the Irtysh, preparing for a big campaign.

In the spring of 1236, countless horsemen, countless herds, endless carts with military equipment and siege weapons moved west.

In 1236 . Genghis Khan's grandson Batu invaded Russian lands. Previously, the Mongol-Tatars with a swift attack captured Volga Bulgaria and subjugated all the nomadic peoples of the steppe to their power.

In the fall of 1237, Batu was placed at the head of the united army. The first Russian city to be devastated was Ryazan.

Having been defeated in battle, the Ryazan residents retreated beyond the city walls. Ryazan stood on the high right bank of the Oka River, below the mouth of the Pronya River. The city was well fortified.

The siege of Ryazan began on December 16, 1237. The Mongol-Tatars surrounded the city so that no one could leave it.

On December 21, a decisive assault on Ryazan began. They managed to break through the city’s defenses in several directions at once. As a result, all the warriors and most of the inhabitants were killed.

The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov refused to help Ryazan, and after six days of siege it was taken.

In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. On February 4, 1238, Batu besieged Vladimir.

The main battle took place near Kolomna, almost the entire Vladimir army died here, which predetermined the fate of the principality. Batu besieged Vladimir and took the city on the fourth day.

After the ruin of Vladimir, a similar fate befell many cities of North-Eastern Rus'. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the enemy arrived to Vladimir, went to the north of his principality to gather troops. On the City River on March 4, 1238, the Russian squad was defeated, and Prince Yuri died.

The Mongols moved to the north-west of Rus' and to Novgorod, then turned back. Two weeks of the siege of Torzhok saved Northwestern Rus' from ruin. Spring forced Batu's troops to retreat to the steppe. Along the way they ravaged the Russian lands. The most stubborn defense was the small town of Kozelsk, whose residents bravely defended themselves.

In 1239-1240 Batu undertook a new campaign, attacking Southern Rus' with all his might.

In 1240 he besieged Kyiv. The nine-day defense of the city did not save it from capture.

The Russian people waged a selfless struggle, but disunity and lack of coordination made it unsuccessful. These events led to the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'.

However, Batu’s campaigns did not entail the complete absorption of Russian lands by the conquerors.

In 1242, the Mongols in the lower reaches of the Volga formed a new state - the Golden Horde ( ulus Jochi), which was part of the Mongol Empire. It was a huge state, which included the lands of the Volga Bulgars, Polovtsians, Crimea, Western Siberia, the Urals, and Khorezm. Sarai became the capital of the Horde. The Mongols demanded submission from the Russian princes. The first to go to the Golden Horde in 1243 was the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Russian princes were frequent guests in the Horde, where they sought to confirm their rights to reign and receive a label. The Mongols, pursuing their own benefit, often incited bloody rivalry between Russian princes, which weakened their positions and made Rus' defenseless.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich (in 1252 he became the Grand Duke) was able to establish personal contacts with the Golden Horde and even suppressed various anti-Mongol protests, considering them useless.

The main form of dependence on the Horde was the collection of tribute (in Rus' it was called Horde exit). To more accurately determine its size, a special population census was carried out. Representatives of the khan were sent to control the collection of tribute in Rus' - Baskaki. The Great Baskak had a residence in Vladimir, where the center of Ancient Rus' actually moved from Kyiv. The Russian Church was freed from tribute.

Despite all these regulations, the Mongol-Tatar raids on Rus' did not stop.

The first raid after Batu’s campaign took place in 1252. Nevryu’s army destroyed the Suzdal land.

Dependence on the Golden Horde coincided with the apogee of feudal fragmentation. At this time, a new political system emerged in Rus'. A fait accompli was the transfer of the capital to Vladimir. The fragmentation of the principalities intensified: 14 new principalities emerged from the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, of which the most significant were Suzdal, Gorodets, Rostov, Tver and Moscow. The Grand Duke of Vladimir stood at the head of the entire feudal hierarchy, but his power was largely nominal. The princes waged a bloody struggle for the Vladimir “table”. The main contenders for it in the 14th century. there were Tver and Moscow princes, and then Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod. The most powerful principalities (Moscow, Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan) from the 14th century. are often called great, and their princes, regardless of receiving the Vladimir reign, are called grand princes. They united other appanage princes around themselves, acted as intermediaries in relations with the Horde and often assembled a “Horde exit.”

2. Rus'’s struggle with Western expansion

In the middle of the 13th century. Rus', fragmented into fiefs, was subjected to double aggression. No less serious than the Mongol-Tatar raids, the danger to Russian statehood existed in the north-west.

Here a threat arose from German, Danish and Scandinavian knights. Was especially dangerous Livonian Order, which is through the Baltic states

threatened Northwestern Rus'.

To conquer the Baltic lands, the knightly order of the Swordsmen was created in 1202. Knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization: “Whoever does not want to be baptized must die.” Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of a Latvian settlement as a stronghold for the subjugation of the Baltic lands. In 1219, Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of an Estonian settlement.

In 1224, the crusaders took Yuryev (Tartu). To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during the Crusades, arrived. Knights members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the Crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the Swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the name of the territory inhabited by the tribe Liv, which was captured by the crusaders.

The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which was bleeding in the fight against the Mongol conquerors.

In July 1240, Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the difficult situation in Rus'. The Swedish fleet with troops on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having climbed the Neva until the Izhora River flows into it, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at the time, and his squad quickly rushed to the landing site. “We are few,” he addressed his soldiers, “but God is not in power, but in truth.” Hiddenly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors struck at them, and a small militia led by Novgorodian Misha cut off the Swedes' path along which they could escape to their ships.

The Russian people nicknamed Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky for his victory on the Neva. The significance of this victory is that it stopped Swedish aggression to the east for a long time and retained access to the Baltic coast for Russia. (Peter I, emphasizing Russia’s right to the Baltic coast, founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the new capital on the site of the battle.)

In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Rus' and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the mayor Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.

Together with his squad, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received news that the main forces of the Order were coming towards him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the path of the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself to be an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him:

“We win everywhere, but we won’t win at all.” Alexander placed his troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Considering the formation of the knights in a “pig” (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was made up of heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky positioned his regiments in the form of a triangle, with the tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, some of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which became known as the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself in the shore. The flank attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like flares, they crushed the knightly “pig”. The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them seven miles across the ice, which by spring had become weak in many places and was collapsing under the heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, “flogged, rushing after him as if through the air,” the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, “400 Germans died in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner” (German chronicles estimate the number of dead at 25 knights). The captured knights were marched in disgrace through the streets of Mister Veliky Novgorod.

The significance of this victory is that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic states. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the 13th century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

In 1253 Livonian knights attacked the lands of Pskov. This time the Pskovites repelled the onslaught, and then crossed the Narova River and ravaged the Order’s possessions. In 1256 The Swedes attempted to attack Novgorod. They fortified themselves on the eastern bank of the Narova River and founded a fortress there. But when the Russian squads approached, they fled without accepting the fight. In response, Alexander Nevsky's troops made a winter campaign across the ice of the Gulf of Finland and attacked Swedish possessions in Finland. So, in the second half of the 13th century. Russians move from defending their lands to attacking and begin to beat the aggressor on his territory. The central battle of this period was the Battle of Rakovor.

Battle of Rakovor. In the winter of 1268 Novgorod and Pskov regiments led by Dovmont of Pskov, reinforced by the squad of Alexander Nevsky’s son, Dmitry Alexandrovich (up to 30 thousand people in total, according to German data), made a major campaign in Livonia against the Danish knights who had invaded the Baltics. In the area of Rakovor (now the Estonian city of Rakvere), the Russians encountered a combined Danish-German army under the command of Master Otto von Rodenstein, who gathered the flower of Livonian knighthood under his banner.

The Battle of Rakovor took place on February 18, 1268. She was distinguished by furious pressure from both sides. “Neither our fathers nor our grandfathers,” the chronicler wrote, “saw such a cruel slaughter.” The central blow of the “great pig” was taken by the Novgorodians, led by the mayor Mikhail. The Iron German Regiment, clad in armor, fought against them. According to the chronicle, people fell in whole rows. In a terrible battle, Mikhail himself and many of his soldiers died. However, the Russians managed to turn the tide of the battle in their favor and put the knights to flight. The outcome of the battle was decided by a flank attack by the regiments of Prince Dmitry Alexandrovich, who put the crusaders to flight and drove them 7 miles all the way to Rakovor.

But when Dmitry and his soldiers returned to the battlefield in the evening, they found another German regiment attacking the Novgorod convoys. Dmitry wanted to immediately attack the knights, but the governors dissuaded the prince from starting a night battle fraught with confusion. Dmitry agreed and decided to wait until morning. But under the cover of darkness, the remnants of the German troops retreated. The Novgorodians stood at Rakovor for three days. At this time, Dovmont Pskovsky with his regiments made a raid across Livonia, capturing a large number of prisoners.

According to the Livonian chronicles, the Crusaders lost 1,350 people in the Battle of Rakovor, the Russians - 5,000 people. (if there are no special clarifications, then losses in battles, as a rule, mean killed, wounded and prisoners). Russian chronicles do not name losses, but from their reports that the Russian cavalry could not break through the corpses, one can conclude that there were significant losses among the crusaders. This is evidenced by the fact that a year later the Danes and Livonian Germans made peace with the Novgorodians, which lasted 30 years. The defeat of the crusaders also meant the triumph of Orthodoxy over the military expansion of Catholicism. It is not for nothing that Alexander Nevsky and Dovmont of Pskov were canonized by the Russian Church.

Reflecting aggression on the northwestern borders of Rus' continued in the future. Not many places in Russia can compare in the tenacity and duration of military operations with the section from Izborsk to Ladoga. From the XIII to the XVIII centuries. On these lines, then fading, then flaring up again, there was a severe confrontation between the Eastern Slavs and the Germans and Swedes. The Principality of Pskov, whose lands directly bordered the possessions of the Livonian Order, bore the brunt of the fight against the German crusaders. From 1228 to 1462, according to the calculations of the historian S. M. Solovyov, the Pskov land was invaded 24 times, i.e. on average once every 10 years. The Novgorodians were mainly in conflict with Sweden. During the specified period, they repelled external onslaught 29 times. In 1322 their squads under the leadership of the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich made a campaign against the Swedes, after which in 1323. The Orekhovsky peace was concluded. For the first time, he established the official border between Novgorod and Sweden along the Karelian Isthmus. But it took another century to finally settle territorial disputes.

Test

Test answers:

1223 →III. Battle of Kalka → V. Mongol-Tatars
1237 → II. Beginning of Batu's invasion → V. Mongol-Tatars
1240 → I. Battle of the Neva → B. Swedes
1242 → IV. Battle on the Ice→ A. Germans

Bibliography

Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A., History of Russia. Textbook.— M.: “PROSPECT”, 1997.
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The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th century

In the 13th century, the enemies who weakened the internal and external position of Rus' were the Mongol-Tatars. Characteristics of the Tatar army: foot and horse warriors, armed with a shield and bow and arrows. The army was organized according to the decimal principle: 10, 100, 1000, 10 thousand people (tumen). All units were shackled by strict discipline, with severe punishment for the slightest violation. The strength of the army was reconnaissance; before the start of the campaign, information about the enemy was collected. (survey of merchants). Tactics: ambushes, raids, deceptive maneuvers, undermining the city, military cunning. Having conquered part of India and China, the Mongols took their siege weapons. The Tatars used night and day armies. Under Genghis Khan, large territories were conquered. In the 20s In the 13th century, they knew nothing about the Mongol-Tatars in Rus'.

1223 - Battle of the Kalka River - the first meeting of Russians and Mongol-Tatars. The Polovtsians invited the Russian princes because they were afraid to fight the enemy alone. The Russians were not united in battle.

The Polovtsians immediately abandoned them. Some of the Russian princes entered the battle, others preferred to wait. The consequence was a severe defeat.

After the victory on the Kalka River, the Mongol-Tatars retreated to the east and the Russians forgot about them for some time. Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, began a new campaign at the end of 1237. An army of 140 thousand, passing through the Mordovian forests, besieged Ryazan. The Ryazan prince turned to his neighbors for help, but did not receive it. Ryazan itself bore the brunt of the blow. Irritated by the unprecedented tenacity of the defenders, Batu Khan ordered the complete destruction of the city. After a six-day siege and a brutal assault, Ryazan fell. The invaders mercilessly dealt with the inhabitants and destroyed the city. Batu's hordes moved deep into North-Eastern Rus'.

In the battle of Kolomna, the Russian squads were again defeated, then Batu’s army captured stubbornly defending Moscow.

During February 1238, the invaders turned into ruins 14 Russian cities between the Oka and Volga rivers, including the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Thousands of people died, thousands of others were taken prisoner, and the remnants of the population took refuge in the forests. The fire destroyed many manuscripts and frescoes. March 1238 there was a battle on the Sit River, where the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodich courageously fought along with a small army. The Battle of the Sit River weakened the conquerors and they did not go further north. The Mongol-Tatars reached Torzhok, this small town defended itself for two weeks. From here the conquerors turned to the Southeast. When retreating to the steppe, they used their famous raid technique. They moved south in a wide front of small detachments, plundering everything in their path. They did not move to Novgorod due to heavy losses suffered during the winter campaign. But even on the way back, Batu’s army faced stubborn resistance. The town of Kozelsk held out until the last man for seven weeks before the conquerors managed to take it. In 1239, the enemy began a new campaign, now against Southern Rus'.

In 1240, after a siege and street fighting, Kyiv fell. Moving west, the conquerors invaded the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Germany, however, having met resistance and, already weakened during the fighting in Rus', they went back across the Volga. By the heroic resistance of the Russian people, Central and Western Europe was saved from the horrors of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and received the opportunity for

Further development of its economy. A new state was founded on the conquered territories - the Golden Horde.

Yoke-political (label) economic oppression (tribute, raids).

A new state, the Golden Horde, appears, the capital of Sarai-Batu. Consequences of the yoke: deepening feudal fragmentation, the struggle of princes for the throne, damage to the economy and culture of Rus'.

Rus' is far behind European countries in its development, but fortunately for the people

the conquerors did not settle in this territory.

The Mongol-Tatars delayed the development of the country, but could not stop it.

But the Mongol-Tatars were not the only enemies who weakened the internal and external position of Rus'. There were also enemies in the west - the Swedes and the Germans. The Vatican proclaimed a campaign of knights to the east with the goal of converting pagans to the true faith (Russians were also pagans for them). But in fact, they were attracted to new territories. The conquest of the Baltic states by the Swedes created a threat to the Russian lands (Novgorod and Pskov). The Russian troops were trained as well as the European knights, but there were not so many professional warriors (mostly during the war they collected militia). The formation of the Russian army-- (Man-center, Wings-flanks). Prince Alexander Yaroslavich gave orders to strengthen the fortresses of Ladoga, Korela, and the Novgorod Kremlin, and to train the princely squad and militias.

1240 - Novgorodians learned about the Swedes' campaign. Goal: the Swedes wanted to block the Russians’ access to the Baltic Sea and seize the route along the Neva. The Swedes wanted to capture the mouth of the Neva River and the city of Ladoga, capturing the route from the Varangians to the Greeks. According to the scheme: Swedes 100 ships - 5 thousand people, commander Jarl Birger. Prince Alexander, hastily gathering the militia and the princely squad, approached the Swedes' camp unnoticed. The Russians, by striking the cavalry at the center of the Swedes' camp and bypassing the foot soldiers along the Neva, wanted to drive the enemy into a corner between the Neva and Izhora. Consequence: The Russians attacked suddenly, the location of the battle was successfully chosen, the coordination of the Russian cavalry and infantry, the heroism of the soldiers, the talent of Prince Alexander. Meaning: the victory eliminated the threat of enslavement of the Russian lands and the peoples of the Baltic states, Rus' retained access to the Baltic Sea.

Even earlier, the Germans captured Pskov, Kaporye, Izborsk. Formed in 1237 The Livonian Order, the support of the Vatican in Eastern Europe, began to seize Russian lands. Alexander Nevsky was in Pereyaslavl due to a quarrel with the boyars. The Novgorodians asked the prince to return to the city. Alexander Yaroslavich returns and carefully prepares for battle.

The Russians liberate Pskov and, pursuing the Germans, go to Lake Peipsi. The Battle of the Ice in 1242 according to the scheme: the Germans are in the shape of a wedge (a pig, with heavily armed knights at the edges).

Russians: Alexander Nevsky placed unprecedented militias in the center, cavalry on the flanks, that is, he strengthened the flanks. During the battle, the German “pig” tried to dismember the enemy with a wedge blow and then destroy him in parts. The heavily armed knights broke through the Russian formation, but could not withstand the flank attack.

Result of the battle: 1) Russian troops liberated the territory from the invaders,

2) The Novgorod and Pskov lands remained independent.