Biron and Bironovism Under Anna Ivanovna (1730–1740), the country was actually ruled by the Germans, who flooded Russia and occupied all the most important government posts. The most powerful influence on the empress was her favorite Ernest Biron (real name Biren). No wonder the era of this

"Bironovschina"

• The era of Anna is often referred to as “Bironovism,” arguing that key positions in Russia were seized by foreigners led by Biron, and that Anna’s reign was characterized by exceptional cruelty.

Empress Anna Ioannovna

• Anna ascended the throne at the age of 37.

• The Empress was raised in the old Moscow spirit. However, after the dramatic events of 1730, Moscow seemed dangerous to Anna.

Empress Anna Ioannovna

• Anna was an uneducated, limited, petty person.

• She was more interested in gossip about the lives of the courtiers than in state affairs.

Anna and Biron

• A Courland nobleman became Anna's favorite back in Mitau E.I. Biron .

• After Anna's accession, he came to Russia, where in 1737 he received the title of Duke of Courland.

• According to a number of historians, Anna gave birth to Biron’s youngest son.

Guard Update

• After the events of 1730, Anna Ioannovna did not trust the old guard regiments.

• In 1731, she created a new guards regiment - Izmailovsky.

• Along with the nobles, they began to recruit recruits from peasants into the guard regiments, hoping in this way to deprive the guard of a political role.

Cabinet of Ministers

• Anna created Cabinet of Ministers , replacing the dissolved Supreme Privy Council.

• It included A.M. Cherkassky (chancellor), P.I. Yaguzhinsky and A.I. Osterman.

• After Yaguzhinsky's death in 1736, he was replaced by A.P. Volynsky.

Cabinet of Ministers

• Anna equated the signature of three cabinet ministers with her own, which allowed her not to bother herself with state affairs.

• The leading role in the Cabinet was not played by the apathetic and lack of initiative Chancellor, Prince A.M. Cherkassky, and the energetic and resourceful vice-chancellor A.I. Osterman.

• However, Osterman had to reckon with Biron, who was careful to ensure that the vice chancellor did not gain too much power.

• It was to counteract Osterman that Biron brought Volynsky into the Cabinet.

Foreigners in Russia under Anna

• Foreigners in the Russian army and navy

Foreigners in Russia under Anna

• There were many Germans around Anna, but almost all of them began serving in Russia under Peter I.

• In addition, among them there were many people from the Baltic region (Baltic states), i.e. subjects of the Russian Empire.

• Foreigners did not form a single “party”; on the contrary, they fought with each other, entering into alliances with Russian nobles.

• Numerous Germans came from different German states, often hostile to each other, and perceived themselves not as “Germans”, but as Westphalians, Württembergers, Oldenburgers, Courlanders...

Secret Chancery

• The most terrible person of the Annen era, the main executioner-whip-breaker, was not a German, but a Russian nobleman A.I. Ushakov, who headed the political investigation agency - Secret Chancery .

• This was, perhaps, the only department in whose affairs Anna constantly delved personally.

• In the secret chancellery they tortured opponents of the regime and simply those who carelessly blurted out something unflattering about the empress or Biron, or didn't report about the “blasphemous” words heard.

The Dolgoruky case

• Anna Ioannovna never forgot her enemies and never forgave them.

• In 1730 A.G. Dolgoruky and his children were exiled to Berezov and settled in the same house where Menshikov, V.L. served his exile. Dolgoruky - to Solovki. Field Marshal V.V. Dolgoruky was thrown into prison in 1733.

• D.M. Golitsyn was imprisoned in 1737 (he died in a dungeon after 4 months).

• Relatives of D.M. Golitsyn suffered disgrace and exile.

The Dolgoruky case

• In 1738, the investigation against the Dolgorukys was resumed.

• A.G. Dolgoruky died back in 1734. The main accused was his son Ivan.

• Under torture, Ivan spoke about the preparation of a forged will of Peter II.

• On charges of conspiracy to seize the throne, I.A. Dolgoruky was wheeled,

• his uncle S.G. and I.G. Dolgoruky, as well as V.L. Dolgoruky was beheaded,

• sisters, incl. “destroyed bride” Catherine, tonsured a nun.

Volynsky case

• The court struggle for power also underlay another major process - the so-called. "Volynsky's case."

• A.P. Volynsky, having become a cabinet minister, began to intrigue against Osterman.

• However, soon, imagining himself omnipotent, he behaved independently in relation to Biron.

Volynsky case

• It was found that Volynsky spoke disrespectfully about the empress.

• An investigation began against Volynsky and his entourage.

• A sketch was discovered in Volynsky's papers “General project on the improvement of internal state affairs”, according to which it was intended to limit the power of the monarch in favor of the Senate, composed of representatives of the “ancient clans,” and to create a “lower government” of representatives of the nobility.

Volynsky case

• Volynsky was accused of plotting to seize the throne.

• Together with him, his “confidants” were tried: the architect P. Eropkin, the president of the Commerce Board P. Musin-Pushkin, the Cabinet Secretary I. Eichler and others.

Bironovschina

• Thus, both major political affairs of the era of Anna Ioannovna, which culminated in cruel sentences and death penalties, were caused not by the confrontation between Russians and Germans, but by court intrigues not related to the national origin of their participants.

• The era of Anna Ioannovna was in fact cruel, but only in comparison with the later times of Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, but it was far inferior in cruelty to the times of Peter I.

• When and why was the myth about the cruelty of “Bironovism” and foreign dominance created?

Anna Ioannovna's will

• Anna Ioannovna had no direct heirs.

• Her closest relative was her niece, Anna Leopoldovna, who grew up in Russia.

Ivan Antonovich

• Anna Ioannovna died on October 17, 1740, at the age of 47.

• Her great-nephew, Anna Leopoldovna’s son Ivan VI Antonovich, was only 4 months old.

• According to Anna's will, Biron was appointed regent, bypassing the parents of the young emperor.

Coup of 1740

• Biron failed to retain his hard-won power.

• The temporary worker was hated by both the guard and most dignitaries; he had no support.

• November 9, 1740 Field Marshal B.H. Minikh arrested Biron and proclaimed Anna Leopoldovna regent. Biron, deprived of his titles, was exiled to Pelym.

• But the field marshal, who became the first minister, also received his resignation on March 3, 1741, because Anna Leopoldovna was afraid of his lust for power.

Regency of Anna Leopoldovna

• Anna Leopoldovna was friendly and romantic, but closed, unsociable and capricious.

• Inexperienced in government affairs, she did not like to appear in public and limited her social circle to her family and a few friends.

• The popularity of the ruler and her husband, Prince and Generalissimo Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick, among the nobility and the guard was extremely low.

• The guardsmen increasingly remembered the daughter of Peter the Great, Princess Elizabeth.

Tsesarevna Elizaveta Petrovna

• What attracted the sympathies of the guards of Tsarevna Elizabeth, who was alien to politics and was only interested in outfits and amusements?

• In the name of his father, Peter the Great.

• A series of insignificant rulers aroused longing for the formidable emperor, whose cruelties in 15 years were somewhat forgotten, and his merits began to seem even more majestic.

• They hoped for Elizabeth, “Petrov’s daughter,” as the restorer of the glory and greatness of Russia.

Palace coup of 1741

• Elizabeth's support was the guards soldiers, who, despite their different origins, felt themselves to be members of a single corporation, a privileged military caste. It was in the “lower classes” of the guard that there was a particularly strong desire to see a “legitimate heir” on the throne.

• 308 guardsmen took part in the coup staged by Elizabeth.

• Among them there were only 54 nobles and not a single officer.

Palace coup of 1741

• Diplomats from France and Sweden also wanted Elizabeth to come to power.

• They were ready to help Elizabeth, who had no means, with money.

• In exchange for support, France sought to get Russia to abandon the pro-Austrian foreign policy pursued by both Biron and Anna Leopoldovna; Sweden was counting on territorial concessions in the Baltic states.

• Could Elizabeth agree to such claims?

Palace coup of 1741

• The ruler became aware of the princess's suspicious meetings with foreign diplomats. Although Elizabeth managed to convince her niece of her innocence, there was no time to hesitate.

Palace coup of 1741

• The company crossed the palace square at a run.

• Elizabeth, who could not keep up with the soldiers, was carried into the palace on the shoulders of the grenadiers.

• According to legend, Elizabeth woke up the ruler with the words “it’s time to get up, sister!”

• The arrest of Anna Leopoldovna, Anton-Ulrich and Ivan VI took place without resistance.

• The 20-year reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna began.

Palace coup of 1741

• What were the features of the palace coup of 1741?

• 1. During the coup of 1741, a legally reigning emperor was overthrown for the first time

• 2. The coup of 1741 was carried out by guardsmen without the participation of guards officers.

• 3. Unlike other coups, the coup of 1741 had a certain ideological design: the winners explained their actions with the desire to restore the rights of “Petrov’s daughter”, to revive the greatness of Russia achieved under Peter I and to rid Russia of the domination of foreigners.

The origins of the myth of Bironovism

• In order to look like a Russian patriot and savior of the Fatherland, Elizaveta Petrovna had to discredit the previous reign as a time of cruel foreign domination.

• This is how the myth of “Bironovism” arose.

• At the same time, the organizers of Elizabeth’s accession to the throne were such “patriots” of Russia as the Saxons H.-Ya, close to the princess. Schwartz and Yu. Grunstein and her French doctor A. Lestock.

The origins of the myth of Bironovism

• Why did the myth of Bironovism turn out to be so stable that it survived more than two centuries?

• The myth about the cruel foreign temporary workers who robbed Russia in both the 19th and 20th centuries. often used by the authorities and conservative forces to whip up anti-Western sentiments in society.

Sources of illustrations

• Slide number 2. http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/3439390/post127468847/ ; http://shkolazhizni.ru/archive/0/n-23459/ ; http://tavrida.in.ua/history/?section=shanc; http://www.peoples.ru/state/statesmen/osterman/osterman_372663249_tonnel.shtml ; http://www.emc.komi.com/03/19/010.htm

• It got its name from her favorite and the most influential person in the country, E.I. Biron, whom the Empress made Duke of Courland. At the same time, the term is largely conditional, since, as N.I. wrote. Kostomarov: “If we subject this issue to impartial and strict criticism, it will turn out that there is a lack of solid grounds for such an accusation against Biron and all the Germans who governed with him. It is impossible to attribute the entire character of the reign to the Germans indiscriminately because the Germans who stood at the head of the government did not form a consenting corporation and each of them pursued his own personal interests, one was jealous of the other, one was at enmity with the other. Biron himself did not manage affairs in any part of the state mechanism, and, moreover, he did not at all show an inclination to engage in affairs, just like the empress; he did not like Russia and generally had little interest in what was happening in it” (Russian history in the biographies of its main figures. Chapter IX; The end of the reign of Anna Ivanovna).

  Traditionally, the main distinguishing feature of the “Bironovschina” is the dominance of foreigners, mainly Germans, in all areas of state and public life. However, the Russian government’s policy of widely attracting foreigners only continued the policy of previous reigns, and there were also a significant number of people from the Russian nobility in senior government positions. The highest and most influential government body, the Cabinet of Ministers, created in 1731, initially consisted of one German - Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman, and two Russians - Chancellor G.I. Golovkin and Prince A.M. Cherkassky. Later, the Cabinet at different times included: the German H.A. Minikh, Litvin P.I. Yaguzhinsky and the Russians - A.P. Volynsky, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and M.G. Golovkin. Approximately the same situation was present in the Collegiums. If the Military Collegium was headed by the German H.A. Minikh, then A.I. Osterman was placed at the head of the College of Foreign Affairs only in 1734, after the death of Chancellor G.I. Golovkin. At the same time, N.F. was at the head of the Admiralty Board. Golovin, Chamber of Collegium - Prince S.D. Golitsyn and P.N. Melgunov, Justice Collegium - princes M.M. Gagarin I.A. Shcherbatov, Commerce Collegium - A.L. Naryshkin, S.L. Velyaminov, P.I. Musin-Pushkin. Nevertheless, E. Biron, who occupied a prominent position at the Court and intervened in all state affairs, was able to resolve almost any issue, since he invariably enjoyed the full support of the empress. When the empress was dying, he managed to convince her to appoint him in her will as the ruler of Russia - regent under the young Emperor Ivan Antonovich.

  The distinctive features of the “Bironovshchina” were the actual self-removal of Anna Ioanovna from governing the country, and the concentration of power at all levels in the hands of temporary workers (up to the highest posts). The consequence of this approach to personnel policy was predatory exploitation and direct plunder of Russia's wealth, the spread of cruel and extrajudicial persecution of the dissatisfied, the introduction of a system of espionage and general denunciation into society. Government affairs at all levels fell into disrepair. Corruption and embezzlement reached enormous proportions, and the constant increase in expenses for the maintenance of the Empress's Court, as well as her favorites and associates, completely upset public finances, leading the country into a serious economic crisis. All this caused a gradual increase in discontent among wide circles of the nobility, which, although initially received a number of important benefits, later began to worry about their well-being, which suffered greatly from the policies pursued by those around the empress. Discontent also spread to the Guard.

  “Bironovschina” was characterized by a sharp increase in the importance of the Imperial Court and related institutions. During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, the staff grew to 625 people, of which 142 were full-time court officials (another 35 were “under the set”), and expenses increased from 100 thousand rubles. (under Peter II) up to 250 thousand rubles. (and an additional 100 thousand rubles for the maintenance of the Imperial Stables). The rank of court officials was raised by several classes (the highest ranks of the Court, for example, were transferred from the 4th class to the 2nd class), an extensive staff was finally formed, headed by the chief chamberlain (this post was held by E. Biron). Unlike previous reigns, court service (and not military or civil service) became a place for a successful and quick career, receiving large awards, etc. Already in 1730, old courtiers were dismissed, and their places were taken by people who enjoyed the trust of the empress. The most important role at the Court was played, besides E. Biron, by Chief Chamberlain Count S.A. Saltykov, Chief Marshal R. Levenwolde, Chief Horsemen P.I. Yaguzhinsky and K.G. Levenwolde and others. The empress's associates, who enjoyed her favor and received large grants, also included Duke Ludwig of Hesse-Homburg, G.P. Chernyshev, princes Yu.Yu., I.Yu. and N.Yu. Trubetskoy and others.

  As a result, the Court, whose most important and only task was to provide for all aspects of the empress’s life, turned into the main institution of the empire, to the detriment of the Collegiums, Senate, etc.

  Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, in his work “On the Damage to Morals in Russia” (1786), described this period as follows: “The court, which had not yet had any institution, was established, court ranks were multiplied, silver and gold shone on all courtiers, and even livery the royal one was covered with silver; The court stable office was set up, and the court carriages acquired an almighty shine from that time on. Italian opera was booked and performances began, as were orchestras and chamber music. Decent and crowded meetings, balls, celebrations and masquerades took place at the court... Every luxury includes pleasure and some tranquility, and therefore is accepted by everyone willingly, and spreads according to its pleasantness. And therefore, from the great, accepting the small, he began to appear everywhere; The nobles, having lived their lives, became more attached to the court, as a source of favors, and the lower ones to the nobles for the same reason. Firmness, justice, nobility, moderation, kinship, friendship, friendliness, affection for God and civil law, and love for the fatherland have disappeared; and these places began to be occupied by contempt for divine and human positions, envy, ambition, love of money, pomp, evasion, servility and flattery, with which everyone imagined their fortune could be achieved and their desires satisfied.”

  Noble politics under Anna Ioannovna. Economy

  Having accidentally found herself on the throne, Anna was not confident in the strength of her position - in 1730 the gentry’s movement to limit imperial power seemed very powerful. And this could not help but frighten Anna, a suspicious and distrustful woman. She did not even have confidence in the guard, relying on whose support she became autocrat. From the files of the Secret Chancellery it is known that in 1730 the Empress accidentally overheard a conversation between guardsmen returning from extinguishing a palace fire. They said to each other: “Oh, it’s a pity that we didn’t get the one we needed, otherwise they would have left him (that is, killed him. - E.A.)". It was about Biron, who by this time had arrived in Moscow and immediately, to the envy of many, became closest to the throne.

  In the 1730s, the world's richest iron ore deposit was discovered in the Urals - a gigantic mountain, which Anna ordered to be called Mount Grace (this is how Anna's name is translated from Hebrew). She herself also sat on a kind of “Mount of Grace” - the pinnacle of autocratic power, and the wealth and privileges, the well-being of the subjects standing at the foot of this “mountain of power” depended on her. And among the crowd of courtiers and officials, what mattered was not nationality, but devotion, the slavish readiness of the subject to fulfill the will of the queen. The internal policy of Anna's government was based, in general, on preserving the principles that were characteristic of the policies of Peter I. The economy, primarily trade and industry, was actively developing. Exports from Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Riga and Revel of metal, timber, bread, beef lard, caviar and other goods in which Russia has always been rich increased sharply. New metallurgical plants and new blast furnaces were built near Mount Blagodat and in other rich deposits of the Urals and Siberia. In 1740, Russia smelted 25 thousand tons of pig iron and overtook England, the main “forge of the world,” whose total smelting amounted to 17.3 thousand tons. The economy in Russia was booming at that time.

  Legends and rumors

  Getting acquainted with the documents, reading the St. Petersburg Gazette, one cannot help but notice that in the state protocol Biron’s two sons were given a special and very honorable place, which the children of any overseas duke could not claim. Biron's children felt completely free at court, playing pranks, playing around without measure, thereby awe-inspiring the courtiers. Everyone paid special attention to the youngest son, Karl Ernst, who was born in Mitau in 1728. He enjoyed the special sympathy of the empress. It is noteworthy that after signing the conditions, Anna went to Moscow light, but took with her... her child - Karl Ernst, who was one year and three months old. Anna, traveling towards the unknown, took with her a tiny child as the closest, native creature to her. No less remarkable is the fact that Biron’s youngest son, from infancy until he was 10 years old, constantly slept in a crib that was placed for him in the imperial bedchamber. Most likely, this boy was Anna’s son from Biron. As for the relationship between the empress and Biron’s wife (and Biron had been married since 1727 to a noble, ugly German noblewoman), we can say with confidence that the favorite, his wife and Empress Anna constituted, as it were, a single family. And this is not surprising. History knows many such love triangles that shocked decorous society, although inside such an everyday geometric figure everything was decided a long time ago and was completely clear to each side. Subsequently, during interrogations in 1741, Biron showed that the empress herself wanted this and that “although sometimes he, or his surname (that is, his wife and children - E.A.) were absent from Her Imperial Majesty, then everyone knows, she deigned to complain at that hour that he and his surname were leaving her and supposedly they were bored with her.” In this episode, what Biron said can be trusted. After all, loving a favorite, you don’t have to tolerate his wife and other people’s children. For Anna, the Biron family was her family. And Karl Ernst grew up to be a real scoundrel, a reveler and a dishonest person. While in France already during the time of Catherine II, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for forging bills and became one of those prisoners who were freed by the revolutionary people during the famous storming of the “stronghold of tyranny,” the Bastille, on July 14, 1789.

  
  
  

  Attachment to Biron and distrust of the nobility, the guard, and Moscow dictated many of Anna’s actions. For her own protection, she formed a new guards regiment - the Izmailovsky, which - in contrast to the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments - was recruited not from nobles, but from fellow nobles of the South and foreigners. Distrust of the former nobles explains the creation of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1731 (instead of the dissolved Supreme Privy Council), as well as the move in 1732 to St. Petersburg - away from the “rebellious” Moscow. Finally, the most important thing: not trusting the politicians of the previous reign, Anna brought to the fore some foreigners, led by Biron. After his name, Anna’s reign began to be called “Bironovschina.”

  The Empress sought the support of her power among those who did not share the intentions of the leaders and the nobility in 1730. Many foreigners who served in Russia long before Anna’s reign did not get involved in these events, and therefore Anna trusted them. We are talking about Field Marshal B. H. Minich, Vice-Chancellor A. I. Osterman, and the Levenvold brothers. But still Biron remained the person closest to her.

  During Anna's reign, as under her predecessors (and successors), serfdom dominated the country's economy and continued to grow stronger. In 1736, a decree was adopted that finally eliminated the category of workers free from serfdom. All those workers who knew the craft and were free people were now recognized as forever attached to the owners of factories and factories. But, as under Peter I, the manufacturer himself did not feel like a complete master of his factory. The state meticulously ensured that it produced only those goods that the treasury needed, that these goods were of a certain quality and in a certain quantity - otherwise they would not notice that the plant was yours, they would take it and confiscate it!

  Under Anna, changes also became noticeable in the noble policy of the autocracy.

  The events of 1730 forced the authorities to think about the problems that worried all the nobles without exception. The discussion was, first of all, about reducing the service life and the right of landowners to land property. By two decrees - 1730 and 1731 - Peter's decree of 1714 on single inheritance was canceled. Now the landowners received greater freedom than before to dispose of their land holdings. Anna's decree of 1736 was no less important for the nobles. It concerned their service in the army and the state apparatus. For the first time in Russian history, the lifelong service of a nobleman was replaced by a 25-year service period, after which he could return to his estate. It was allowed to leave one of the sons in the house to maintain the household. In 1732, the salaries of Russian officers were doubled, who since the time of Peter the Great had received half as much money as foreigners hired for service.

  The life of the nobles, like other classes, in Annin's Russia was alarming. It is known that the personality of the ruler and his entourage always leaves an imprint on the life of the country and society. Empress Anna had a difficult character, was a vindictive and cruel woman. Biron, whose whims were feared at court, was a match for her. Everyone knew his ability to turn the empress against anyone. People were afraid of becoming a victim of denunciation, afraid to express their opinion about the policies of the state or its officials. Each such statement could lead to the terrible accusation of “insulting the honor of Her Imperial Majesty.” “The sovereign’s word and deed” were often heard on the city streets.

  Only the mention of the Secret Chancellery and its chief A.I. Ushakov terrified people. In the torture cellars of this punitive institution, suspects faced sophisticated torture with fire, iron, and water. Anna's reign knew all types of cruel medieval executions: impalement, burying, as well as burning alive, quartering, wheeling, etc. Anna did not forget the events of the beginning of 1730 and sought to deal with its active participants. The first blow fell on the heads of the Dolgoruky princes. In the spring of 1730, Prince A.G. Dolgoruky and his family were exiled to Siberia. The “destroyed bride” also went there - that’s what the bride of Peter II, Princess Ekaterina Dolgoruky, was called, as well as Prince Ivan Dolgoruky and his young wife Natalya. In 1729, she, the 15-year-old daughter and heiress of Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev, agreed to marry the favorite of Peter II, Prince I.A. Dolgoruky. Soon the emperor died, and Prince Ivan's favor ended. Relatives advised breaking the marriage agreement and returning the wedding ring to the groom. But the girl, honest and noble, refused to do this. She married Ivan and shared with her husband all the trials of bondage in Siberia, in Berezovo. The artless “Handwritten notes” she left about her life suggest that you can walk your life’s path with dignity if you are guided in everything by love, humility and mercy.

  Notes in the margins

  In almost every encyclopedia you can read that “Bironovism is a reactionary regime in Russia in 1730–1740 under Empress Anna Ioannovna, named after E. I. Biron. The dominance of foreigners, the plunder of the country’s wealth, general suspicion, espionage, denunciations, brutal persecution of the dissatisfied.” In this definition, all the ideological, sharply negative “filling” is clearly visible. Moreover, it is easy to understand where it all came from. The fact is that the ten-year reign of Anna Ioannovna turned into a historiographical “Bironovism” immediately after Elizaveta Petrovna seized power under the patriotic slogans of liberating Russia from the oppression of hated foreigners. She, as they proclaimed from the pulpit of the churches, decided to “scare away the night owls and bats sitting in the nest of the Russian eagle, thinking evil of the state, to tie up the insidious destroyers of the Fatherland, to defeat and snatch the legacy of Peter the Great from the hands of strangers, and to free the sons of Russia from captivity and until the first to bring prosperity.” These opportunistic, propaganda assessments of Anna’s reign, formulated in the time of Elizabeth, are firmly entrenched in our historiography and in fiction - everyone remembers I. Lazhechnikov’s novel “The Ice House” and “Dumas” by Kondraty Ryleev.

  Anna's court was dominated not by the Germans, but by an international clique of courtiers. In the struggle at the foot of the throne for the favors of the monarch, neither nationality nor religion mattered. In a word, the motley company that surrounded Anna's throne - by the way, her grandfather Saltykov was once a subject of the Polish king - consisted of the Courlander Biron, the Livonians brothers Levenwolde, the Oldenburger Minich, the Westphalian Osterman, the "Litvin" Yaguzhinsky, a descendant of the Kabardian princes of Cherkassy, ​​as well as Russians : Golovkin, Ushakov and Volynsky. And this company did not form a unity; it was a typical court camarilla, torn apart by a never-ending struggle for power, influence, and favors. If you look at the results of domestic and foreign policy of that time, they indicate that under Anna the course of strengthening the empire and developing the economy was continued, the nobility were given significant benefits, there were no more foreigners in the army and navy than under Peter I. As for arrears, the ferocious Secret Chancellery, the brutal persecution of the dissatisfied, the plunder of the country's wealth and other eternal vices of domestic government, they have always existed: both before Biron and after him. At the same time, at times Biron even lost in comparison with thieves from natural Russians in subsequent periods of Russian history, in comparison with whose actions the abuses of the times of “Bironovism” seem like innocent pranks. Naturally, Biron’s role should not be underestimated. The origins of his overwhelming influence on the empress lay not only in the personality of the temporary worker - a handsome and strong-willed man, but in the feelings of the empress, who saw Biron as her master, husband and protector. Throughout the ten years of her reign, Anna and her favorite did not part for a single day. Biron was not loved and feared. He was uneducated, ill-mannered and rude, sometimes shouting at the empress. For ten years, Biron actually ruled the country, which he learned quite quickly, without making any serious mistakes. He usually kept a low profile, having his proteges and spies everywhere. Arrogant, cruel and vindictive, he was merciless towards his enemies, distinguished by cynicism, selfishness, and adored rude flattery and thoroughbred horses.

  Along with Biron and other foreigners, there were many Russians at the throne who enjoyed the trust of Anna Ioannovna: maternal relatives the Saltykovs, as well as the nobles P. I. Yaguzhinsky, A. M. Cherkassky, Feofan Prokopovich, the head of the Secret Chancellery who helped her defeat the supreme leaders. I. Ushakov and others. All together they formed the empress’s entourage, torn apart by strife and intrigue not on a national basis, but solely for the sake of the highest favors, awards, and grants.

  The Dolgorukys lived for eight long years in Berezovo - where Menshikov and his daughter Maria, the first bride of Peter II, lived and died. In 1738, a local clerk reported on Prince Ivan, accusing him of making disapproving statements about the empress. All the Dolgorukys were taken to Shlisselburg. There they were interrogated, tortured, and in the fall of 1739, Prince Ivan and three more from the family of the former favorite were executed near Novgorod. They wheeled Ivan Dolgoruky on the wheel - they crushed his arms, legs, spine and pushed him, still alive, into the rim of a cart wheel. Even earlier, Anna dealt with the head of the supreme leaders, Prince D. M. Golitsyn. The old, sick Golitsyn was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he died in the spring of 1737. The case of Artemy Volynsky also made an extremely difficult impression on society. Back in 1711, he, a young, smart captain, a descendant of boyars, took a liking to Peter I, and he began to give Volynsky instructions and appointed him ambassador to Persia. Volynsky “became famous” for his abuses and his hot, unbridled character. He rose to prominence under Anna thanks to Biron, who made him a cabinet minister. Having found himself in the highest circle of power as Biron's confidant, Volynsky was at first a loyal protege of the temporary worker, served him zealously and obsequiously, but gradually became insolent towards his patron. The investigation launched against Volynsky in the Secret Chancellery was controlled by A.I. Osterman, who had previously been in conflict with him. In ordinary life, prone to cowardice and sneaking, Volynsky on the rack, under torture, proved himself to be a courageous man and accepted his shameful death with dignity. Volynsky was accused of trying to organize a conspiracy. The reason for such a terrible accusation were parties in the house of the hospitable cabinet minister, who had many friends and discussed with them his “General Project for the Improvement of State Affairs” - the fruit of observations and reflections on the state economy and its problems. Meetings of major dignitaries in Volynsky’s house were a thorn in the side of the authorities, and the cabinet minister’s unflattering comments about Anna, Biron and others, which became known, aroused the wrath of the queen.

  The main informer in the Volynsky case was his butler Vasily Kubanets, who heard and remembered his master’s revelations. After a short and unfair trial, Volynsky and two of his friends - architect Pyotr Eropkin and adviser Andrei Khrushchev - were executed at the Obzhorny market in St. Petersburg on June 27, 1740. It was in vain that Volynsky, until recently the empress’s best minister and speaker, waited for a pardon. It never came. Anna was resting and hunting in Peterhof at that time...

  On the day of Anna’s accession to the Russian throne in 1730, Muscovites were amazed by the ominous blood-red glow of the midnight sky over the city. This strange northern lights were interpreted as a harbinger of a bloody reign. And indeed, the end of Anna’s reign, thanks to the trials of Dolgoruky and Volynsky, was painted in the color of blood. On October 5, 1740, the Empress suffered an attack of illness right at the dinner table and started vomiting blood. Anna's health condition quickly deteriorated. Apparently, in the fall of 1740, her passion for horse riding caused an exacerbation of her kidney stones. Anna, suffering severely from pain, went to bed. On top of everything else there was hysteria. Fear arose in her, perhaps in connection with a strange incident that happened at night in the palace shortly before the empress's illness. The guard officer on duty, on night guard duty, noticed in the darkness of the throne room a figure in white, extremely similar to the empress. She wandered around the hall and did not respond to calls to her. This seemed suspicious to the vigilant guard - he knew that the empress had gone to rest. The same was confirmed by Biron, who was awakened by him. Meanwhile, the figure did not disappear, despite the noise raised. Finally, they woke up Anna herself, who came out to look at her double. “This is my death,” said the empress and went to her room. Biron did not leave the bedside of the sick empress until she signed a will, with which she appointed her great-nephew, baby Ivan Antonovich, as heir to the throne, and declared Biron regent until the 17th birthday of the young Emperor Ivan VI. Death came for Empress Anna on October 17, 1740. Dying, she looked until the very end at the crying Biron standing at her feet, and just before her death she said: “I bet!”, that is, “Don’t be afraid of anything!”

  There were many periods when the main affairs of state were managed by foreigners. Most often these were representatives of German lands. It is with one of the Germans that the term “Bironovism” is associated. This concept is negative. Although not everything is as simple as it might seem at first glance.

  Characteristics of the concept

  Bironovism is a reactionary regime of the first half of the eighteenth century in Russia. In the decade when Empress Anna Ioannovna reigned.

  Character traits:

  • the dominance of foreigners - Russia was mainly filled with Germans who occupied important positions in the civil service;
  • exploitation of the people - such an attitude was typical of the majority of the country's rulers;
  • the persecution of the dissatisfied was characterized by cruelty, denunciations were encouraged;
  • depletion of the state treasury - this was facilitated by the inability to manage the state, excessive luxury at court, and theft by favorites.

  The word “Bironovism” was coined by Field Marshal Minich. He was a favorite of Peter the Great. Being a German, Minich hated Anna Ioannovna's favorite. As soon as he had the opportunity, he dealt with him. But about this in order.

  The rise to power of Anna Ioannovna

  Bironovschina is a term that is associated with the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign. Her rise to power was a complete surprise both for her and for the courtiers. The former Duchess of Courland did not play a special role in the court struggle.

  She ascended the throne thanks to the February coup of 1730. Anna Ioannovna became empress without signing any documents that would limit her power. She received the full power of the Russian autocrat.

  Anna Ioannovna was not prepared for the role that she received. She did not have the necessary skills and knowledge, and generally had no desire to learn. At the time of her accession she was thirty-seven years old. According to contemporaries, she did not have a pleasant appearance and had a large physique.

  In her youth, she was married to the Duke of Courland, who soon died. For security reasons, Peter the Great did not look for a groom for Anna. So she remained in foreign lands for eighteen years. Despite her status as a widow, she was not alone. At different times she had prominent favorites. One of them was Biron.

  Biron

  

  Bironovshchina is a term associated with the period when Biron was Anna Ioannovna's favorite. In fact, in the history of Russia there were four Birons, who at one time played their role in the history of the state. The favorite was Ernst Johann. He had two brothers who also served in Russia.

  The older brother's name was Karl. He is famous for his escape from Swedish captivity; he later became Governor-General of Moscow. The second brother's name was Gustav. He distinguished himself during the capture of Ishmael.

  The empress's favorite had a son. His name was Peter. Biron sought to marry him, who was to become the heir to the throne. These attempts were unsuccessful.

  He came from small landed nobility. He began serving under Anna Ioannovna in 1718. He was married to the duchess's lady-in-waiting. In his marriage he had three children. Some researchers suggest that some of Biron's children were born to the empress. But there is no evidence of this.

  

  Biron had great influence on the empress. Before her death, she appointed him regent. He was supposed to rule the state while he was a minor. The appointment took place in the presence of many witnesses, while the empress was of sound mind. It was compiled in oral and written forms. But this did not save Ernst Johann from problems. He was accused of seizing the regency and was eliminated.

  Who was the main figure at court?

  Although the Bironism in Russia is associated with the activities of Biron, many historians agree that the main internal and external government affairs were handled by Heinrich Osterman.

  He was born into a pastor's family in Westphalia and was educated at the University of Jena. The duel changed his life. He was forced to flee to Amsterdam and then to Russia. Finding himself in a foreign country, he quickly learned Russian. Three years later, in 1707, Osterman became a translator and gained the trust of Peter the Great. He was his advisor. The ruler valued Osterman, granting him many lands.

  He was one of the associates of Peter the Great, and after his death he became the de facto leader of Russian foreign policy. In 1730 he received the title of count.

  State activities of favorites

  

  State policy during the Bironovschina (the period of Anna Ioannovna’s reign):

  • a cabinet of ministers was established - the entire initiative belonged to Osterman;
  • concluding trade agreements with Holland and England;
  • the conclusion of the Belgrade Peace, which ended the war with the Turks;
  • fleet reform - creation of the Arkhangelsk shipyard.

  Such actions can hardly be called those that undermine the state. The persecution of Osterman and Biron began after the death of Anna Ioannovna. They were accused of giving away government jobs to foreigners and persecuting Russians.

  Both favorites were sentenced to death, which was changed to exile on the day of execution.

  

  The reign of Anna Ioannovna is associated with the concept of “Bironovism”. As Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin once noted, Biron was unlucky in that he was German. That is why they decided to blame all the sins of that time on him. But if you study the activities of the rulers of that era, it becomes clear that at that time no one thought about the people. Each new ruler sought to gain benefits for himself and stay on the throne as long as possible.

  Modern meaning of the concept

  The term “Bironovism” today means the dominance of foreigners in the social and political life of the state. It is used with a negative message.

  Associations with the term:

  • theft;
  • espionage;
  • looting the treasury;
  • repression;
  • crazy holidays.

  There are no surviving references to Bironovism in folklore. This is due to the fact that Biron’s activities concerned the lives of nobles, officials, and guards soldiers. Palace coups had little impact on the lives of ordinary people.