Political and economic enslavement of Iran. Iran at the crossroads of the interests of the great powers of the 19th century A semi-colony is...
Persia (Iran) has long been a trade and economic partner of Russia in the East.
The first “Russian tourist” in Iran, about whom written sources tell, was Afanasy Nikitin in 1468 - 1474. Through Derbent and Baku he entered Persia and crossed it from Chapakur on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea to Hormuz on the shores of the Persian Gulf. The Russian merchant met the spring of 1468 in Mazandaran, and then went further south, passing Ray (near modern Tehran), Kashan, Yazd, Kerman, Tarun and Bender. On the way back from India to the Black Sea, Afanasy Nikitin also traveled through Iran and Turkey. True, he wrote rather sparingly about his journey in “Walking across the Three Seas” - Persia at that time was devastated by war.
Regular diplomatic relations between Russia and Iran were established under Abbas I, in 1592 (Rurikovich ruled in Russia at that time). Both countries mainly thought about mutual trade - but there were also attempts to establish a military-political alliance. For example, Russia sought to conclude an alliance directed against Turkey (XVI - XVII centuries). And even the Persian campaign of Peter I (1722) was formally carried out with the aim of helping the ruling dynasty in Iran cope with internal rebellions.
At the beginning of the 19th century. In Europe, the so-called “Eastern Question”, associated with the struggle for spheres of influence and markets for European powers, intensified. Unfortunately, this caused a significant deterioration in Russian-Iranian relations (and the policies of Great Britain and France played an important role here). What's the result? Two Russian-Iranian (Russian-Persian) wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828. - a page in our history worthy of regret.
It is known that residents of Russia, speaking about the years that followed those wars, with constant regret remember the diplomat and writer Alexander Griboedov, who died during the seizure of the Russian embassy in Tehran. Of course, everything was not easy. In many ways, the riot was caused by the Russian ambassador’s retinue’s disregard for local customs.
Today, the Russian embassy in Tehran has the largest territory and the largest complex of buildings of all foreign missions - this is one of the many gifts from the Persian Shah that became compensation for the death of the diplomat.
Russian Embassy in Tehran: top view
Despite the subsequent brief period of allied relations between the two states, when Iran, with its two campaigns against Herat (1838 and 1856), distracted Great Britain’s attention from advancing into Central Asia, helping Russia, relations later became strained. Russia and Great Britain fought for the “Iranian pie.” Well, history shows that weak countries invariably become bargaining chips in the games of the strong - these are the inexorable laws of politics. And Iran, alas, was weak in those days: the era of the Qajar dynasty is considered one of the most difficult in the history of Iran.
Until now, as soon as the Russians mention Griboyedov, the Iranians notice that they had to sacrifice not only people, but also entire territories. Just look at the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty of 1828, as a result of which Iran had to partially cede the Caucasus to Russia. Another difficult moment for Iranians: the intervention of Russian troops in northern Iran in 1911. As a result of the actions of the Russian army, which came to the aid of the Shah’s government, the monarchical regime in Iran managed to suppress the famous Constitutional Revolution. And this, in turn, seriously hampered the further development of the country.
This was followed by the October Revolution of 1917. According to the Soviet-Iranian equal treaty of 1921, Soviet Russia renounced all property that belonged to Tsarist Russia in Iran. The agreement also provided for the general equal use of Caspian waters for the two states.
Subsequently, economic cooperation between Iran and the USSR continued to develop. The USSR provided Iran with considerable assistance in industrialization, as well as during the crisis of 1929-1933. (when trade relations between Iran and Russia developed on a barter basis). The Western powers, for obvious reasons, feared the spread of Soviet influence in the East and in every possible way prevented the development of these relations.
At the end of the 1930s, Germany's position in Iran noticeably strengthened. During World War II, Hitler planned to use the territory of Iran as a base for expansion against the USSR and British possessions in the Middle East and India. The Shah flirted with the Nazis, and the Iranian army was always wary of the USSR. The Allies could not allow Iran to be included in the war. As a result, British and Soviet troops were sent there simultaneously, in September 1941. Based on an agreement between Iran, England and the USSR, Iran provided its territory for transit transportation by the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition.
Still, in Soviet times, Iran remained a military-political enemy of the USSR. The country's pro-Western course was especially clearly defined after Iran joined the Baghdad Pact in 1955, which also included Iraq, Great Britain, Turkey and Pakistan, and after the Iran-US military agreement of 1959 (it made it possible to use American armed forces on Iranian territory) . However, economic cooperation continued to develop successfully. The Iranians were grateful to the USSR for assistance in the construction of metallurgical and engineering plants, laying a gas pipeline, etc. in 1966.
After the 1979 revolution, Iran broke off relations with the United States. Relations with the USSR remained neutral.
Here we should recall Ayatollah Khomeini’s letter to Mikhail Gorbachev, sent in 1986. In fact, Ayatollah Khomeini very accurately predicted the possible adverse consequences of the coming perestroika and excessive craving for American ideals.
In the mid-80s, when Iran's needs for modern weapons became acute, cooperation with the USSR began in this area (missiles and aircraft were supplied).
Perestroika and the collapse of the USSR marked a new milestone in relations with Iran. Having ceased to fear the “communist threat,” Iranian leaders realized how much cooperation with Russia could bring. Since the 1990s, a new stage of contacts and partnerships began, including Russian participation in such important Iranian projects as the construction of a nuclear power plant in Bushehr.
Today we cooperate in many areas: together we conduct scientific, economic, and educational projects. So far their number is not as large as we would like - but our countries have everything ahead, and we can accomplish a lot together, no matter what obstacles stand in our way!
Iran is a state in South-West Asia.
From the 2nd half of the 17th and 18th centuries, Iran experienced a decline in feudal society, accompanied by uprisings of the peasants and urban population against oppression and an intensification of the struggle for power between individual groups of the feudal nobility.
Since the end of the 18th century, when the Qajar dynasty established itself in Iran (1796-1925), the country was in a state of economic, political and cultural decline, becoming the object of colonial expansion of European capitalist powers, primarily England, France, and also Russia. The result was the signing of unequal treaties between these countries, as well as the United States and Iran, after which the country turned into a market for European industrial goods.
In the mid-19th century, commodity-money relations developed in Iran, the crisis of land ownership intensified, accompanied by growing discontent among the peasantry, bankrupt artisans, urban poor, and merchants. It resulted in anti-feudal Babid uprisings (1848-1852), aimed, among other things, against the enslavement of Iran by foreign capital.
Part of the ruling class (mulqadars, i.e. landowners who owned land on the basis of private property and associated with commercial land ownership) were interested in limiting foreign capital and strengthening central power, establishing national independence. It was with these goals that Emir Nizam began to carry out reforms that led to some economic and cultural changes (the construction of sugar factories, enterprises for the production of cast iron, porcelain, crystal, paper; the first newspaper in the history of the country was published, young people were sent to study abroad).
In the last third of the 19th century, Iran was further enslaved by England and Russia, which received a number of telegraph, road and other concessions and founded banks; in 1901 England received a concession to use Iranian oil. The import of foreign capital and the control of foreign advisers over customs, finance, and military units of Iran were increased. To the beginning In the 20th century, Iran turned into a semi-colony.
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Tehran. Imperial Bank. Postcard from the 19th century. |
Country residence of the Shah. Postcard from the 19th century. |
Under the influence of the revolution in Russia (1905-1907), an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal bourgeois revolution (1905-1911) unfolded in Iran, as a result of which a constitution was proclaimed, a Majlis was convened, and progressive reforms were carried out. During the revolution, two currents emerged: democratic (its basis was the peasantry, artisans, workers, urban petty and middle bourgeoisie) and liberal (led by the big commercial bourgeoisie, liberal landowners, and part of the clergy). In a number of regions of the country, the anti-feudal peasant movement developed widely, the strike movement of workers and office workers grew, and the first workers' unions were created.
In 1907, an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded on the division of Iran into spheres of influence and the preservation of a neutral zone (this agreement completed the formation of the Entente bloc, which included England, France and Russia, opposing the Triple Alliance with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in the years First World War). Germany also sought to strengthen its position in Iran, and the United States sent a Schuster mission to Iran in 1911 for a similar purpose. Although the Iranian revolution was suppressed by the joint efforts of Russia and England, it had a great influence on the development of the countries of the East.
In the Middle Ages, Iran (Persia) was one of the largest states in Asia. By the beginning of modern times, the Iranian state, located on important strategic and trade routes of the Middle East, united under the rule of the Safa-vid dynasty, was experiencing a period of economic and cultural growth, but from the end of the 17th century. it gives way to a streak of decline.
In 1722, Iran was invaded by Afghans who occupied most of its territory, and their leader Mir Mahmud was proclaimed Shah of Iran. The fight for the expulsion of the Afghans was led by the talented commander Nadir Khan. The Afghans were expelled from Iran. As a result of the aggressive campaigns of Nadir, who was proclaimed Shah in 1736, a vast power arose for a short time, which, in addition to Iran itself, included Afghanistan, Bukhara, Khiva, Northern India, and Transcaucasia. However, this fragile unification collapsed after the assassination of Nadir in 1747. Iran itself fell apart into several feudal estates that were at war with each other. Iranian rule over the peoples of Transcaucasia weakened, and Georgia regained its independence. But Iranian feudal lords continued to oppress Eastern Armenia and Azerbaijan.
By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. Iran was a weakened and fragmented feudal state. More than half of the population of Iran proper were made up of various Iranian tribes, and over a quarter were Azerbaijanis. In addition, Turkmen, Arabs, Kurds, etc. lived in Iran. About a third of the country's population led a nomadic lifestyle. The level of socio-economic development of different parts of the country was not the same. The vast areas inhabited by nomadic tribes were especially backward.
Agrarian relations
The feudal relations that prevailed in Iran were based on feudal ownership of land. As in India, the Shah was considered the supreme owner of all land, water, livestock, etc. However, in fact, the Shah had only his domain at his disposal, the income from which directly went to the maintenance of the court, troops, and the central government apparatus. Most of the lands were fief holdings of feudal lords (at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, ownership of fiefs was less and less associated with serving the Shah). In fact, the lands of nomadic tribes, which were controlled by the khans of the tribes, also belonged to the same category. A fairly significant part of the land was waqfs, which formally belonged to mosques and holy places, but were actually at the disposal of the clergy.
In addition to these main land holdings, there were also mulk lands, which were considered the private property of landowners and sometimes merchants. Ownership of these lands was not associated with any vassal duties towards the Shah. A small part of the land still remained the private property of other categories of landowners, in some cases peasants.
On lands of all categories, peasants were subjected to severe feudal exploitation. There was a rule according to which the harvest collected by a tenant farmer was divided into five shares. Four shares were distributed depending on the ownership of land, water, seeds, and draft animals. The fifth went to compensate the peasant’s labor. The peasant gave the landowner three to four-fifths of the harvest. In addition, the peasants bore various in-kind duties for the benefit of the landowner khans and paid numerous taxes.
Formally, the peasant was considered a free person, but debt bondage, arrears, and the unlimited power of the khans made him enslaved and deprived him of the opportunity to change his place of residence. The peasants who fled were returned by force to their old places. Brutal exploitation led to poverty and ruin of the peasants and the decline of agriculture.
City, craft and trade
As in other Asian countries, in Iran peasants often combined farming with household crafts, engaging in weaving, carpet making, etc. Iranian cities had a developed craft that preserved the medieval organization. The simplest manufactories using hired labor also existed here. Craft workshops and manufactories produced fabrics, carpets, iron and copper products. Some of the products were exported abroad. Internal trade in handicraft and manufacturing goods was quite widely developed. It was led by small and medium-sized merchants, united in guilds.
Although in the economically more developed regions of Iran there were already known prerequisites for the development of commodity-money relations, the fragmentation of the country, frequent khan rebellions, and the arbitrariness of feudal rulers prevented the formation of a new economic structure.
Political system. The role of the Shia religion
The feudal political superstructure contributed to the preservation of outdated orders. The supreme and unlimited ruler of the country was the Shah. As a result of a long internecine struggle between various khan groups at the end of the 18th century. The Qajar dynasty established itself in power in Iran.
The first representative of the Qajars on the Shah's throne was Agha-Muhammad, who was crowned in 1796. After the short reign of Agha-Muhammad, Fath-Ali Shah (1797-1834) ascended the throne.
Iran was divided into 30 regions, which were ruled by the sons and relatives of the Shah. The rulers of the regions were almost independent princelings. They collected duties and taxes for their benefit, some even minted coins. Conflicts and armed clashes often broke out between them over disputed territories. The most influential local khans were appointed rulers of the districts and regions into which the regions were divided.
The Muslim clergy played a major role in the political life of the country. Unlike the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire - Sunnis - Iranian Muslims were Shiites (from Arab, "shi" - a group of adherents, a party). They believed that the Muslims should be led by the descendants of Ali - the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. Therefore, they did not recognize Caliphs (in modern times, the Ottoman Sultan-Caliph) were the supreme leaders of Muslims. The Shiites denied the sanctity of the Sunnah. They did not recognize the supreme authority of the Shah in matters of faith. This increased the political role of the Shiite clergy, which, under certain conditions, became the center of opposition to the authorities.
The trial was of a religious nature. The slightest disobedience on the part of peasants and artisans was severely punished. Under Agha Mohammed, a common punishment was gouging out the eyes. Thousands of blind beggars wandered around the country, their appearance alone inspiring fear of the Shah’s wrath.
The situation of the enslaved peoples was especially unbearable. Iranian feudal lords sought new conquests. In 1795, Agha-Muhammad made a campaign against Georgia, during which Tbilisi was barbarically plundered, and 20 thousand of its inhabitants were taken away and sold into slavery. The Georgian people and other peoples of Transcaucasia sought protection from Russia from the aggression of Iranian feudal lords.
Iran and European powers
Although the Dutch and English East India Companies back in the 17th century. created their own trading posts on the coast of the Persian Gulf, A at the beginning of the 18th century. France concluded trade agreements with Iran until the end of the 18th century. Iran has not yet played an important role in the colonial policy of the European powers. But from the first years of the 19th century. he found himself included in the orbit of the aggressive policies of England and France. At that time, Iran attracted
England and France, first of all, as an important strategic springboard in the bitter struggle they were then waging for economic and political dominance in Europe and Asia.
In 1800, the British authorities in India sent a diplomatic mission to Iran, which achieved the signing of a political and trade agreement beneficial to the British. The Shah of Iran pledged to provide military assistance to England in the event of an Anglo-Afghan conflict and not to allow the French into Iran. In turn, the British promised to supply Iran with weapons for military operations against France or Afghanistan. The treaty gave the British important trading privileges. English and Indian merchants received the right to freely, without paying taxes, settle in all Iranian ports and import duty-free English cloth, iron and steel products and lead.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Contradictions between Tsarist Russia and Iran are intensifying. In 1801, Georgia joined Russia, which saved it from the threat of enslavement by the Shah's Iran and Sultan's Turkey. A number of khanates of Dagestan and Azerbaijan passed into Russian citizenship.
Russian tsarism, having established itself in Transcaucasia, sought to acquire political influence in Iran. The Iranian feudal lords did not want to give up their claims to Georgia and the Azerbaijani khanates. The revanchist aspirations of the Iranian feudal lords were used by British and French diplomacy to implement their plans to subjugate Iran and incite it against Russia. In 1804, the French government invited the Shah to conclude an anti-Russian alliance, but the Shah, counting on English help, rejected this proposal.
Anglo-French struggle in Iran. Russian-Iranian War 1804-1813
After Russian troops entered the Ganja Khanate in 1804, a war began between Iran and Russia. Relying on the support of the local population, Russian troops successfully moved forward. The Shah demanded the promised help from the British. However, in 1805, Russia opposed Napoleon and became an ally of England. Under these conditions, England was afraid to openly help Iran against Russia. French diplomacy took advantage of the created situation. In May 1807, an Iranian-French treaty was signed, according to which the Shah pledged to break off political and trade relations with England, persuade Afghanistan to jointly declare war on England, assist the French army in the event of its march on India through Iran, and open all ports of the Persian Gulf for French warships. Napoleon, in turn, promised to achieve the transfer of Georgia to Iran and to send weapons and instructors to reorganize the Iranian army.
Soon a large French military mission arrived in Iran, under whose control the reorganization of the Iranian army began. When the treaty was ratified, the Shah granted new trading privileges to French merchants.
However, the French failed to realize these advantages. After the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia, France could not continue to provide open military assistance to Iran against Russia. The British were quick to take advantage of this. In 1808, two English missions arrived in Iran at once: one from India, the other directly from London. In 1809, a preliminary Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed. Now the Shah pledged to sever all relations with France, and England - to pay Iran a large monetary subsidy every year as long as the war with Russia continued. British military instructors and weapons arrived in Iran. By pushing Iran to continue the war with Russia, the British sought to establish their control over the Iranian army.
Neither French nor British support had a serious impact on the outcome of the Russian-Iranian war. The reorganization of the Shah's troops under the leadership of British officers could not significantly increase their combat effectiveness. In various areas, especially in Khorasan, there were revolts against the Shah's power. The population of Transcaucasia sympathized with and helped the Russian troops. The protracted war ended in the defeat of Iran.
In October 1813, in the town of Gulistan, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Iran, according to which the latter recognized the annexation of Georgia to Russia and the inclusion of Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan into the Russian Empire. Russia received the exclusive right to have a navy in the Caspian Sea. Russian merchants could trade freely in Iran, and Iranian merchants could trade freely in Russia.
British diplomacy continued to strive to use the revanchist sentiments of the Iranian feudal lords to expand the political and economic influence of England in Iran. In 1814, an Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed in Tehran based on the preliminary treaty of 1809. It provided for “perpetual peace between England and Iran.” All alliances of Iran with European states hostile to England were declared invalid. Iran pledged to assist the British in their policies in India and Afghanistan and to invite military instructors only from England and its friendly countries. England undertook to achieve a revision of the Russian-Iranian border established by the Treaty of Gulistan, in the event of a war with Russia, to send troops from India and pay a large cash subsidy. The signing of the treaty with England strengthened the anti-Russian sentiments of the Shah.
Russian-Iranian War 1826-1828 Turkmanchay Treaty
Soon, the Iranian authorities demanded a revision of the Treaty of Gulistan and the return of the Azerbaijani khanates to Iran, and in the summer of 1826, the Shah, incited by the British, began military operations against Russia. A new war led to the defeat of Iran. Armenians and Azerbaijanis provided all possible assistance to the Russian troops and created volunteer detachments. After the capture of Tabriz by Russian troops, peace negotiations began, ending on February 10, 1828 with the signing of the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty.
The Turkmanchay Treaty replaced the Gulistan Treaty of 1813, which was declared invalid. New border along the river. Arak meant the liberation of Eastern Armenia from the oppression of Iranian feudal lords. Iran pledged to pay Russia 20 million rubles. military indemnity, confirmed Russia's exclusive right to maintain a navy in the Caspian Sea. The treaty provided for the mutual exchange of envoys and gave Russia the right to open its consulates in Iranian cities. Simultaneously with the peace treaty, a special treaty on trade was signed. Customs duties on goods imported from Russia should not exceed 5% of their value. Russian merchants were exempt from paying internal duties. They were subject to the right of extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction. All trade transactions between Russian merchants and Iranian ones, as well as legal cases between Russian and Iranian subjects, had to be resolved in the presence of the Russian consul.
The Turkmanchay Treaty put an end to the Russian-Iranian wars. It secured the liberation of the population of Georgia, Northern Azerbaijan and Eastern Armenia from the yoke of Iranian feudal lords. But the treatise on trade contained articles that consolidated the unequal position of Iran, and became an instrument of the colonialist policy of tsarism and Russian landowners and capitalists. The influence of tsarism in Iran increased significantly.
The policy of the government of Nicholas I put the first Russian ambassador to Iran, A. S. Griboyedov, in an extremely difficult position. He reported to St. Petersburg about the dire consequences of the indemnity imposed on Iran and the lack of funds in the Shah's treasury. But according to the instructions of his government, he had to demand strict implementation of the agreement. English agents and the reactionary clergy took advantage of this and launched a persecution of the Russian ambassador. On February 11, 1829, a crowd of fanatics destroyed the Russian embassy in Tehran and tore Griboyedov to pieces.
RUSSIAN-TAJIK (SLAVIC) UNIVERSITYDEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND THEORY OF JOURNALISM ANDELECTRONIC MEDIA
MEDIA OF IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN
Educational and methodological manual
for students of the “Journalism” department
Dushanbe— 20 11
UDC 070:342.727(072)
Media of Iran and Afghanistan. Compiled by: Sohibnazarbekova R. M.,
Mulloev Sh.B. –Dushanbe, 2011.-56 p.
Reviewers:
Gulov S. – candidate of philological sciences, associate professor,
Sultonov M. - Candidate of Philological Sciences.
The educational and methodological manual is designed for full-time students of the journalism department of the philological faculty of universities. The manual examines the current state of the systems and models of the media in Iran and Afghanistan, which have common historical roots.
Responsible editor: Professor Nuraliev A.N.
© Sohibnazarbekova R.M., Mulloev Sh.B.
CONTENT
| INconducting……………………………………………………………………… | 4 |
| CHAPTERI. Journalism of Iran…………………………………………………………… | 6 |
| Periodicals of Iran in the 19th century…………………………………….. | 10 |
| Features of the development of Iranian periodicals in the first half of the 20th century | 14 |
| The development of journalism in Iran during the Second World War…………… | 17 |
| Journalism in Iran after the victory of the Islamic Revolution…………….. | 19 |
| Periodicals of national minorities of Iran……………….. | 22 |
| Electronic media of Iran……………………………………………………… | 25 |
| Iran News Agencies…………………………………………………………… | 28 |
| CHAPTERII. ANDjournalismAfghanistan……………………………. | 31 |
| Social and political prerequisites for the emergence and development of the Afghan press……………………………………………………………… | 33 |
| Afghan media during the Second World War………….. Afghan media during the reign of King Mohammed Zahir Shah... |
36 |
| ………………………………………………………………………………. | 38 |
| Afghan media after the April Revolution of 1978 | 40 |
| Journalism in Afghanistan after the Taliban came to power………………………………………………………………………………………… | 41 |
| Afghan periodicals in exile…………………………… | 44 |
| Afghan news agencies……………………………………………………… | 46 |
| Control questions for the test……………………………………………………………. | 51 |
| Literature………………………………………………………………. | 53 |
| Application…………………………………………………………………. | 56 |
INTRODUCTION
Contemporary Persian journalism studies the history of media in Iran and Afghanistan. The subject Media of Iran and Afghanistan is closely related to the “History of Foreign Journalism”, “Modern Foreign Media” and, as an independent scientific discipline, studies the fundamental stages of the development of foreign journalism and journalism - the history of books and printing, newspapers and magazines, radio broadcasting, television, news agencies in Iran and Afghanistan.
The subject of mass media in Iran and Afghanistan" is an integral part of the general educational and professional training of journalists. newspapers, In the process of intensive cooperation in various fields, in particular journalism and the formation of the information space, the study of this course is of great importance.
Purpose of the course – consider the current state of media systems and models in foreign countries, in particular Iran and Afghanistan, which have common historical roots. Study the main directions of development of the press in modern society; analyze the most important factors influencing the position of the media of these countries in the modern world.
Course Objectives – to form in students an idea of the patterns of development of systems and typological features of media models, of the role of the media in the economic, political, cultural and social life of foreign countries, in particular Iran and Afghanistan. The course provides an understanding of the current state and trends in the development of the media in Iran and Afghanistan.
The first section of the textbook is devoted to the development of the media of the Islamic Republic of Iran, starting with the history of the formation and further development of the country's periodical press at the present time . The second section similarly reflects the formation and development of the media of the Islamic State of Afghanistan.
The educational and methodological manual is designed for students of the journalism department of philological faculties of universities.
CHAPTERI.
JOURNALISM OF IRAN
(Islamskand IRepublic of Iran)
Modern Iran is part of the ancient country of the Iranians, which was and remains one of the centers of Eastern civilization. In the middle of the 6th century. BC. The king of ancient Persia from the Achaemenid family, the Great Cyrus, founded a powerful Iranian state, which later became a world empire. The Achaemenids made a major contribution to the development of civilization in a vast region stretching from Egypt to China and from India to Greece. In the early years of the Achaemenid dynasty, the ancient Iranian prophet Zoroaster lived and preached. The Achaemenids were the first to develop the concept of world government and world state. Written evidence of the Achaemenid era is practically nonexistent, since all ancient Iranian works, including all the originals of the Avesta, the holy book of the Zoroastrians, were burned by Greek invaders in the 4th century. BC.
After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the country was under the rule of the Greek dynasties for about one century and experienced a state of decline, and its culture degraded. In the middle of the 3rd century. BC. The Parthian kingdom was founded by the Arsacid family and the country was liberated from Greek rule. However, Iran acquired its former power under the Sassanid Empire (3rd century - 7th century AD). The borders of Iran under the Sassanids reached the western regions of China and also included Transcaucasia and part of India. The most famous ruler of the Sassanid dynasty was Khusrow Anushirvan (531–579), whose fame continued for many centuries after the fall of the empire.
In the middle of the 7th century. Iran was conquered by the Arabs and included in the Arab Caliphate. In the 9th century, local dynasties appeared in Iran, which had already become part of the Islamic world. The first such dynasty, the Tahirids, ruled in Khorasan between 821 and 873. She was replaced by the Saffarids, who in the second half of the 9th century. dominated the territory of Khorasan, Herat and southern Iran. At the end of the 9th century. The Tajik Samanid dynasty founded a powerful state centered in Bukhara. It included most of the territories of modern Iran, Afghanistan and the countries of Central Asia. The Samanids became famous as patrons of literature and art. During their reign there lived such great people as the founder of Persian-Tajik literature Abuabdullah Rudaki, the famous philosopher and doctor Abuali ibn Sina (Avicenna), and others. In the 11th-12th centuries. the country was ruled by the Ghaznavid and Seljuk dynasties - representatives of the Turkic nomadic tribes who entered the region from the north.
In the 13th century Iran was captured by the Mongols. The dominance of the Genghisids and their descendants, the Timurids, in the region lasted until the beginning of the 16th century.
Iran regained state independence in 1502, with the coming to power of the local Safavid dynasty, which ruled the country until 1722. The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Shah Abbas I, who ruled in the second quarter of the 17th century. During his reign, the Safavid state was powerful and prosperous.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Afghan tribes rebelled and, declaring the independence of Kandahar and Herat, they moved west and captured the Safavid capital, Isfahan. The fight against the Afghan invaders was led by Nadir Shah, who managed to expel them and found the Afshar dynasty.
At the end of the 18th century. The Qajar dynasty came to power, ruling the country until 1925. In the 19th century. Due to the Qajars' inability to create a national army and a centralized state apparatus, Iran was unable to resist the expansion of Great Britain and Russia. At the beginning of the 19th century. Iran lost its Caucasian provinces (the territories of modern Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia), which went to Russia after the long wars of 1804–1813 and 1824–1828.
In the second half of the 19th century. Afghanistan and Turkestan, which were in the sphere of Iranian interests, came under the control of Great Britain and Russia, respectively. At the same time, Iran itself became the arena of Russian-British rivalry.
Foreign interference in Iranian affairs caused widespread popular dissatisfaction with the actions of the authorities. Beginning in 1905, a wave of protest swept across the country in the form of mass demonstrations and strikes. As a result, in 1906 the Shah was forced to agree to adopt a constitution and convene a Majlis (parliament). In 1925, a coup d'état took place in Iran and one of its participants, Reza Khan Pahlavi, ascended the throne. In international relations, Reza Shah moved towards rapprochement with Nazi Germany. This was the reason for the occupation of Iran (after World War II) by Great Britain and the USSR. Reza Shah was forced to abdicate the throne and the throne was taken by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.
In 1979, the Islamic Revolution took place in Iran under the leadership of Imam Khomeini, during which the monarchy was overthrown and an Islamic republic was founded.
Today Iran is one of the most economically and technologically developed countries in the Middle East. It is located in a strategically important region of Eurasia. Iran has large reserves of oil and natural gas and is also developing its own nuclear program.
Currently, the main ethnic group in Iran is the Persians (48–50%), living in the central regions. The Iranian-speaking group includes Kurds (7–9%), inhabiting the provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah, Gilans, Tats, Talysh and Mazenderans (8%), inhabiting the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, Lurs and Bakhtiars (2%), living in the southwest, Baloch (2%) living on the border with Pakistan. The core of the Turkic group are Azerbaijani Turks (24–26%). The Turkic group also includes Turkmen (2% in Mazandaran and Khorosan) and the Qashqai people living in Fars (together 3–4%). The number of Arabs living compactly in Khuzestan and on the Persian Gulf Islands does not exceed 3%. Small ethnic groups of Jews, Armenians and Assyrians survive, living in communities, mainly in cities. There are no official statistics on the ethnic composition of the population in Iran.
The population of Iran, according to the 1996 census, was 60.0 million people, in 2003 (estimated) it increased to 66.4 million people.
The official language of Iran is Persian (Farsi), which belongs to the Iranian group of Indo-European languages. After the Arab conquests, the New Persian language began to form, a significant part of the vocabulary of which is made up of Arabic words using Arabic script. Being native to the Persians, Farsi serves as a means of interethnic communication. Other common languages are Kurdish, Baluchi, Gilan, Mazandaran, Tat, Talysh, Lur (including Kukhgiluye) and Bakhtiyar dialects, Pashto, and Turkic languages spoken by the Persians. The Persian alphabet is also used for other languages, except Armenian and Hebrew. More than a quarter of the population speak languages of the Turkic group (Azerbaijani Turks, Turkmens, Qashqais). The Arabic language, despite the small proportion of the Arab population, being the language of the Koran and Islamic sciences, is widely used in religious practice. According to the Iranian Constitution, the study of Arabic is compulsory in secondary school.
98.8% of Iran's population professes Islam. 91% of Muslims are Shiites. The official religion of the country is Jafarite Shiism, which recognizes 12 imams. The rest of the Muslims are Sunnis (mostly Arabs and Kurds), the Shiites are Ismailis. The Constitution recognizes the right to freely conduct religious rites only for Iranian Zoroastrians (the dominant religion in Iran before the adoption of Islam), Jews and Christians. According to the 1996 census, 78.7 thousand were Christians, mainly belonging to the Armenian-Gregorian and Assyrian churches, about 30 thousand were adherents of the ancient religion of Iran - Zoroastrianism. The Jewish community after the Islamic revolution was reduced to 13 thousand.
Control questions:
1 Iran is the oldest state in the world.
2 Population of Iran.
3 Languages and religions in Iran.
HISTORY OF THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRANIAN JOURNALISM
Iran's periodicalsXIXcentury
In contrast to the country's history and ancient literature, Iranian journalism is relatively young. It appeared during the reign of the Qajar dynasty at the beginning of the second half of the 19th century.
There are different opinions regarding the first newspaper in Persian. According to some researchers, book printing originated in Iran at the beginning of the 19th century, when a printing house for printing in Persian was created in Tabriz in 1812 and then in Tehran in 1824. The first lithographic press also appeared in Tabriz. Lithography specialists received training in Russia. Printing presses were also common in other cities of Iran. As in other countries of the world, at first only religious literature was published on the printing press, and only then secular books and periodicals. The earliest printed organ in Persian was a sheet published in 1837-1838. in Tehran
There is another that the first printing press was brought from London by Mirzo Salih Shirazi, who was sent there to study printing. On this press, in 1841, he published the first newspaper in Persian, Kogazi Akhbor (News Paper).
However, this newspaper was not widely distributed and therefore in Iran the history of periodicals dates back to the advent of the first official newspaper “Vakoyi Ittifokiya” (“Diary of Current Events”), which was founded on February 7, 1851. The newspaper was published weekly until 1906 on four, and sometimes on six to eight pages. One of the most interesting sections of the newspaper was considered the “Important News” section, which contained information from different provinces of Iran. No less interesting was the “Information from Abroad” section. It contained news from the countries of Europe and America.
In the development of the initial period of Iranian journalism, researchers also note the role of the first secular educational institution, “Dor-ul-funun” (“House of Science.” This is a European-style educational institution, which was founded in 1851, where exact and natural sciences and Western languages were taught. The “House of Science” was opened on December 28, 1851. Its director was the famous Iranian writer Reza Quli Khan Hedayat (1780-1871), a highly educated representative of the Iranian intelligentsia of that time.
In the “House of Science” various works of European science and literature were translated into Persian. In particular, books of a historical nature (History of Peter I, History of Charles XII). Fiction also began to appear translated into Persian: “Robinson Crusoe” by Defoe, novels by Jules Verne, Dumas, etc. The translation activities of the “House of Science” contributed to the familiarization of the Iranian intelligentsia with European literature.
It was in this educational institution, in addition to printing textbooks and fiction, that new newspapers were also published, such as “Ruznomai ilmi” (“Scientific newspaper”), “Ruznomai ittilo” (“Izvestia”), “Ruznomai nizami” (“Military newspaper”) , “Sharaf” (“Glory”), etc.
It should be noted that there was no daily newspaper in Iran until the end of the 19th century. It appeared only in 1896 under the title Khulosot-ul-Hawadis (Summary of Events) and was also published in Dor-ul-funun.
Thus, two main factors - the study of young Iranians in Western countries and the activities of the first secular educational institution - became the main prerequisites for the development of the Iranian periodical press in the second half of the 19th century.
The new stage in the history of Iran at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century greatly influenced the development of journalism. Social, economic and political crisis, covering Iran, as well as increased foreign interference in the country's internal affairs, determine the further course of development of the Iranian periodical press.
These events led to the fact that at the beginning of the 20th century, free-thinking intelligentsia and progressive clergy began to publish democratic newspapers. Unlike the first state newspapers, which supported the old power structures, the publications of these newspapers were critical. The government severely punished supporters of democratic ideas, which also included newspaper publishers. As a result, many journalists leave the country and establish free press publications abroad. Thus, such large cities as London, Paris, Berlin, Cairo, Calcutta, Istanbul become the main centers of uncensored newspapers in the Persian language.
One of these famous uncensored newspapers was “Kanun” (“Law”). The newspaper began publication in 1890 in London. Published monthly. Since it contained criticism of the Iranian authorities, its delivery to the country was prohibited. However, despite the ban, it was delivered to Iran and became popular among Iranian readers. Very often the newspaper criticized the interference of European states in the internal affairs of Iran, for the need to eliminate poverty, hunger and lawlessness in the country. The newspaper "Kanun" played a big role in creating an atmosphere of free thought on the eve of the Iranian Revolution of 1905-1911.
Other newspapers published abroad in Persian also disseminated new ideas and criticized the authorities: “Akhtar” (“Star”), Istanbul, 1875, “Hable-ul-Matin” (“Strong Rope”), Calcutta, 1893, “Parvarish” (“Education”), “Hikmat” (“Wisdom”), “Chehranamo” (“Mirror”), “Kamol” (“Perfection”) – Cairo, 1889-1890. Differing from each other in volume and subject matter, all of these newspapers opposed outdated laws, reported on violence and lawlessness committed by officials and the government, and exposed various negative aspects of Iranian reality.
So, the periodical press of Iran appeared in the second half of the 19th century and at the end of the century it became a strong factor influencing the social life of Iran. However, with changing events in the political arena, Iran's free press is developing abroad.
Control questions:
1The emergence of the first newspaper in Persian.
2The role of “Dor-ul-funun” (“House of Science”) in the development of periodicals in Iran.
3Uncensored newspapers in Persian.
FEATURES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODIC
PRINTS OF IRAN IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE XX CENTURY.
At the beginning of the 20th century in Iran, in addition to foreign uncensored newspapers, mass demonstrations lead to the widespread development of a democratic press. In 1906, demonstrations took place in many large cities of Iran, the participants of which demanded the proclamation of a constitution and the convening of parliament. Under pressure from the demonstrators, the Shah was forced to accept their terms, as a result of which the first parliament was opened, and in 1909 the country's first Constitution was adopted. All these events had a huge impact on the development of the press, and the number of new publications increased. In total, about 350 newspapers and magazines were published in Iran during this period.
The main achievement of journalists of this period was that, under pressure from democratic movements, in October 1907 the Shah was forced to sign an addition to the basic law, which proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, the inviolability of person and property, freedom of speech, press, society, and assembly. The Constitutional Revolution made it possible for the Iranian periodical press to acquire a general socio-political orientation. Democratic and anti-democratic tendencies collided in Iranian journalism. The country began a rapid quantitative growth of various newspapers and magazines. The new newspapers “Nidoi Vatan” (“Voice of the Motherland”), “Tamaddun” (“Civilization”), and “Ironi Nav” (“New Iran”) came out in defense of the democratic forces in the country.
In addition to central newspapers, provincial newspapers such as Ittifak (Union), Tarakki (Progress), Nasimishimol (North Breeze), and Suri Israfil also played a special role in the development of journalism and the promotion of new ideas. (“Israfil’s Trumpet”), etc.
Newspapers “Ruznomai milli” (“National newspaper”), “Ruznomai ilmi” (“Scientific newspaper”), “Ittiloot” (“Izvestia”), “Ruznomai nizami” (“Military newspaper”), “Donish” (“Knowledge” ), “Tarbiyat” (“Education”), “Maorif” (“Enlightenment”), “Ruznomai Tabrez” (“Tabrez Newspaper”), “Pars” and others expressed the interests of the government.
However, the press holiday did not last long. In 1911, the Shah, with direct military assistance from England and Russia, carried out a counter-revolutionary coup. By his order, the parliament (Majlis) was dissolved, the new democratic organizations created were banned and left-wing newspapers were closed. After the suppression of the constitutional revolution in Iran, terror began against free thinkers. As a result, many progressive newspapers were closed and many journalists had to leave the country. They emigrated to Switzerland, France and Germany to continue the fight. Until the end of the First World War, most Iranian emigrants from various cities of Iran were in Germany. The magazines “Kova” and “Iranshahr (“Country of Iran”) were published here. The Koviyoni publishing house was also founded in Germany, publishing books in Persian and Arabic.
At the beginning of 1920, in connection with the emergence of various parties, the party press began to develop in Iran. By the mid-20s. In Iran, despite the harsh government regime, the progressive newspaper Rosti (Truth), the organ of the Khorasan People's Party of Iran, gained great development. Progressive newspapers were published in Tehran, Tabriz, Shiraz and other cities. The People's Party of Iran (Tudeh) fully supported and helped the revival of the democratic press in the country. In Tabriz, the newspapers “Farodi Korgaroni Ozarboyjon” (“Voice of Azerbaijani Workers”), “Sharora” (“Iskra”), “Communist”, the magazine “Bayraki Inqilob” (“Banner of the Revolution”) were published, in Khorasan - the newspaper “Communist” and others . Due to repression by the authorities, young parties could not act fully. Meanwhile, the People's Party of Iran in the late 20s. began publishing the theoretical magazine “Sitorai Surkh” (“Red Star”) in large circulation, through which communist ideas were propagated. The magazine was published first in Austria, and after some time in Germany.
During this period, a number of thematic publications were created by the progressive intelligentsia of Iran. The most famous of them are “Iktisodi Iron” (“Iranian Economy”), “Hakikat” (“Truth”), “Nur” (“Ray”), “Umed” (“Hope”) and magazines: “Sharq” (“East”) "), "Falahat" ("Peasantry"), "Armugon" ("Gift"), "Payomi Navin" ("New News"), "Khalk" ("People"), etc.
During these years, Reza Shah actively fought against all democratic organizations and movements with terror and violence. Many publicists suffered in this war. Dozens of journalists have been jailed for their political opinions. The founder of the democratic press of Iran, Taghi Irani, became a victim of terror. Because of criticism of the Reza Shah regime, well-known journalists of the time Mir-zadeh Ashki, the editor of the newspaper “Karni Bistum” (Twentieth Century) and the editor of the newspaper “Nasihat” (Council) Vaez Qazvini were killed.
Control questions:
1Political events of the early 20th century in Iran and their impact on the development of periodicals.
2Development of the Iranian party press.
3The struggle of Reza the Shah against the democratic forces.
DEVELOPMENT OF JOURNALISM IN IRAN OVER THE YEARS
SECOND WORLD WAR
With the departure of Reza Shah from the throne in 1941, socio-political life in Iran changed, and a new stage in the development of the country's press began. Progressive scientists, writers and journalists, including those who were released from prison, are returning to a new political life. For the period from 1941 to 1945. permission was issued for the right to publish 263 different types of press organs. In Tehran alone, up to 150 newspapers were published during these years.
The leftist press occupied an important place in the journalism of this period. After organizational Withformsrationing In 1941, the Iranian People's Party (Tudeh) founded many of its newspapers and magazines. Their number in the country has increased to 60 items. The central printed organ of the party, the newspaper "Rahbar" ("Leader") was one of the leading newspapers in Iran in those years.
In 1941-1946. The People's Party of Iran (Tudeh) was one of the most influential political parties, and its printed organs, the newspapers Rahbar (Leader), Mardum (People), Razm (Battle), Zafar (“Victory”), “Bashar” (“Humanity”), “Navidi Ozodi” (“Messenger of Freedom”), the magazines “Masoili Hizbi” (“Party Issues”), “Nomai Mardum” (“People’s Tribune”) occupied a prominent position place in the system of periodicals published during these years.
The further development of journalism in Iran is determined by the development of a multi-party system. Dozens of organizations and parties began to operate in the country and began publishing their own printed publications. Along with the center, the number of newspapers and magazines has also increased in the provinces of the country. Dozens of newspapers were published in cities such as Isfahan, Shiraz and Tabriz. Publications also appear in other languages of the peoples of the country: Arabic, Azerbaijani, Armenian, as well as German, English and French. Among the newspapers, the most influential are the daily newspapers Ittilaat (Izvestia) and Kayhon (Universe), which during this period became one of the best and largest newspapers in Iran in all major indicators. Their volume increased to 25 strips, i.e. almost doubled.
Control questions:
1Social and political life of Iran during the Second World War and its impact on journalism.
2The emergence of the leftist press.
3Development of the Iranian press in a multi-party system.
MODERN IRANIAN MEDIA
JOURNALISM IN IRAN AFTER THE VICTORY OF THE ISLAMIC REVOLUTION
The main directions in the development of modern Iranian media were determined after the victory of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, when Iranian journalism entered a new period of its development. With profound changes in the country's ideology, politics and economy, many newspapers and magazines ceased to exist due to lack of materials, as well as political and ideological reasons. However, the leading central newspapers of the country “Ittiloot” (“Izvestia”) and “Kaykhon” (“Universe”), as well as the magazines “Armugon” (“Gift”) and “Yagmo” (“Prey”) continued to publish without any visible changes.
Nowadays in Iran the press is under the control of the authorities. The country's largest daily newspapers are under complete government control. The central, as well as the fairly developed provincial press, is charged with the duty of fully supporting the government course of the Islamic revolution.
Today, over 1,500 printed publications are published in the country, 60 of which are daily newspapers with a total circulation of 2 million copies. The total circulation of all publications is about 60 million copies. In addition to the state Persian, the press also appears in Azerbaijani, Arabic, Armenian, and English.
The main Iranian newspapers are “Keyhan” (circulation - 350 thousand), “Ettelaat” (500 thousand), “Abrar” (75 thousand), “Resalat” (40 thousand), “Jomhuriye Eslami” (30 thousand) , Tehran Times, Iran News, etc., are published in Tehran. The capital also hosts the state radio and television organization and the National News Agency IRNA.
Today's Iranian press is classified according to the accepted gradation of political and ideological views - conservatives, reformers and centrists. Conservative ones include “Keyhan”, “Universe” (the most popular and one of the oldest newspapers), “Qods”, “Iran” (essentially the printed organ of the Iranian government), “Jomhuri-e Eslami” (“Islamic Republic”, “Ettelaat” "("News"), "Resalat"("Mission"), "Farda"("Future"), "Akhbar"("News"), "Shoma", "Jam-e-jam"., from the main functioning reformist publications - "Etemade Melli" (print organ of the "People's Trust Party"), "Etemad" (also reflects the interests of this party), "Aftabe Yazd" and "Khambastegi". Among the centrists - "Kargozaran" (print organ of the "Kargozaran Sazandegi" party Standing apart is the newspaper "Hamshahri" - the printed organ of the Tehran mayor's office. Under the "Hamshahri" brand, the weekly magazines "Hamshahriye Javan" (youth), "Hamshahriye Khanevade" (family) and "Hamshahriye Diplomatik" (international politics, published in Persian) are also published. and Arabic in some Gulf countries).
The Iranian press has a wide range of newspapers on economic topics: “Sarmae”, “Pul”, etc., (“Farshe Dastbafe Iran”, etc.) (“Jahan-e Ektesad” (“World of Economics”), “Iran Exports”, “ Khogug-e Bazaar” (“Right of the Market”), “Manateg-e Azad” (“Free Zone”) cultural (“Bukhara”, “Farzaneh”, “Film”, “Goftogu”, “Gol-Aga”), scientific -educational ("Rasaneh") orientation. Newspapers and magazines are also published that are aimed at certain social groups and strata - women - "Zanan" ("Women"), youth and students ("Javan").
In recent years, taking into account the expansion of the market for mobile communications, electronics and household appliances, corresponding specialized magazines have begun to appear, which are in great demand among the population.
As for the language of periodicals, about 80% of all periodicals are published in Persian, 20% in English, Arabic and others. Traditionally, the press in Iran is subsidized by the state.
In recent years, the number of print media in the country has been growing dynamically, however, according to experts, there has been no qualitative improvement in printed products. At the same time, the number of foreign correspondents and journalists working in Iran has almost halved in recent years (from 1,067 to 612). The list of countries that accredited their journalists to Iran in 2004 is led by the USA (85 people), Great Britain (79 people) and Japan (68 people).
It should be noted that in the most liberal newspapers, which were once considered oppositional to the ruling regime, the nature of publications has changed somewhat and has become as close as possible to officialdom. Journalists who disagreed with the general line were either suspended from work or arrested. The conservative press (in particular, the newspapers Keyhan and Ettelaat), in turn, sharply increased the amount of propaganda and analytical materials aimed at supporting the policies of the new president and his government. Such materials have increased significantly since August 2005. Typically, the volume of materials on regional issues in local newspapers has increased significantly.
Control questions:
1Iranian periodicals after the 1979 revolution.
2Structure of Iranian print media.
3The nature of publications in modern Iranian print media.
PERIODICAL PRESS OF NATIONAL
MINORITIES OF IRAN
Among the national minorities of Iran, the Kurds have their own stamp. The publication of the first political newspaper of the Kurds, “Kurdistan,” is closely connected with the national liberation movement of the Kurds at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The period when the Kurdish people began to demand independence from Ottoman Turkey and the Shah's Iran. New forces also entered the political arena—student youth, intellectuals who emerged from feudal and spiritual circles and founded the Kurdish political newspaper “Kurdistan,” which began publishing in 1898, first in Cairo, then in Geneva.
However, the newspaper was soon closed, but a representative of an influential clan from Nehri, Abdul-Kadir, who then headed the Turkish Senate, resumed publication of a Kurdish newspaper called “Hetav-i-Kurd” (“Kurdish Sun”). This newspaper became the organ of the Kurdish Society for Mutual Assistance and Progress, but after the publication of several issues it was also closed.
Before the outbreak of the First World War, the Turkish authorities banned all Kurdish organizations and the publication of Kurdish periodicals. Kurdish educators were forced to go underground.
And, nevertheless, on the eve of the world war, the Kurdish national movement tried to find other ways to develop spiritual culture. However, the division of Kurdistan between Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria became a new obstacle to the development of periodicals, since after the division the connection between publishing centers was severed. In Turkey, Kurdish periodicals were strictly prohibited. As for Iran, in the 20s, Kurdish periodicals were represented here only by individual printed publications of Kurdish political parties and groups, which were published underground.
The periodical press appeared again in Iran only during the Second World War. At this time, several Kurdish national magazines and newspapers were published in Iranian Kurdistan.
During the years of autonomy in Iranian Kurdistan, the magazine “Halala” (“Rose”), the organ of the Kurdistan Youth League, began to be published. Other publications were also published during the period of the Kurdish Republic.
As for Iraqi Kurdistan, although Kurdish newspapers and magazines have been published here longer, they were not published regularly. Severe censorship and government persecution led to frequent interruptions in the publication of Kurdish magazines and newspapers and did not allow them to openly defend national interests.
Among the illegal periodicals, the following newspapers stand out: “Shorish” (“Revolution”), “Ryzgari” (“Liberation”), “Azadi” (“Freedom”), “Khabat Kurd” (“Struggle of the Kurds”).
As a rule, legal periodicals in Kurdistan were published in several eastern languages in order to familiarize the public in Turkey and Iran, as well as Iraq, with the literature and culture of the Kurdish people. In addition to political propaganda, the Kurdish periodical press paid a lot of attention to educational and cultural agitation.
Language issues important for the development of national culture were considered and covered exclusively on the pages of Kurdish periodicals. Often, periodicals replaced a primer for children, as well as illiterate and semi-literate Kurds. In particular, the magazine “Havar” (“Call”) played a significant role both in the dissemination of the Latin alphabet, which was much more convenient for the Kurdish language, and in the formation of the modern language.
Armenian stamp in Iran. The Armenian press in Iran, founded in 1894 with the publication of the literary and political weekly “Shavig” (“Trail”), has a rich history. Today, Iran publishes one daily evening newspaper in Armenian, “Alik” (“Wave”), the first copy of which was published in 1931. The newspaper's circulation today reaches 3,000 copies. It fairly objectively illuminates the internal life of the Armenian community in Iran. Some information comes from Armenia through the USA and Canada, via the Internet. The information includes, along with agency reports, all the most significant problematic articles published in the Armenian, Armenian-language and Russian-language press. In addition, the Alik editorial staff receives information published in Armenian publications around the world, as well as information related to Armenia and the politics of the countries of the region. The newspaper also covers some of the most significant aspects of the political and economic life of Iran.
The newspaper has several supplements, including a youth supplement - “Khachmeruk” (“Crossroads”). The main authors of the application are young Armenians who are receiving a humanitarian education. Subsequently, the most talented of the authors of “Khachmeruk” become journalists constantly writing for “Alik”.
The Alik Publishing House, which has a fairly good material base, also publishes various specialized literature, calendars, books, etc. Its main customers are members of the Armenian community of Iran and the firms and companies headed by them. Thus, “Alik” is one of the centers of socio-political life of the Armenian community of Iran. The orientation of the newspaper is strictly maintained and never goes beyond national-patriotic boundaries.
Control questions:
1The emergence of the first political newspaper of the Kurds.
2Kurdish print after the division of Kurdistan.
3The role of the Alik publishing house in the development of the Armenian periodical press in Iran.
IRAN ELECTRONIC MEDIA
Islamic Republic of Iran Television
Television of the Islamic Republic of Iran dates back to 1957 and before the 1979 revolution. There were only two television channels in Iran, which mainly broadcast the products of foreign television channels.
Today, television broadcasting in Iran is managed by the state giant - the Organization of Radio and Television of Iran (Seda va simaye jomhuriye eslamiye Iran) - IRIB and includes about 20 television channels of information, religious, scientific and educational orientation. The organization has 17 offices abroad, incl. in Russia, Germany, Great Britain, USA, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, India and Turkey. Broadcasting is carried out in 20 languages. The official publication of IRIB is the newspaper “Jame Jam”. The director of the IRIB is appointed directly by the Supreme Leader of Iran for a period of five years. Its activities are monitored by a special committee, which includes two representatives each from the judiciary, the president and the Iranian parliament.
In July 2007, IRIB launched a large international television channel, Press TV, broadcasting in English throughout the world. The channel employs 30 journalists, most of whom are not of Iranian origin.
In the field of radio broadcasting, there are about 30 stations of various types in Iran, in particular, information radio “Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran” (including in Russian), youth “Javan”, cultural “Farhang”, sports “Varzesh”, religious “Koran”, etc. All radio stations are controlled by the state.
There are no private television channels in Iran, since after the Islamic revolution all media are under state control in order to avoid propaganda of “American-Israeli” values that are alien to Iranians.
There are 6 national and 2 satellite TV channels in Iran. One of the Iranian satellite channels is Jomi Jam, which broadcasts 24 hours a day and is broadcast worldwide.
According to the media laws of 1979, all newspapers and magazines must be licensed, all television channels must be owned by the state, and the promotion of any non-Islamic or anti-Islamic views is prohibited. The programs are broadcast not only in Farsi, but also in Azerbaijani and other languages of national minorities.
“Channel One” is the main and national channel, “Channel 2” is public, “Channel 3” is sports. In addition to the first two channels, 3-sports is very popular among the Iranian population, since Iranians really like to watch sports programs. This is the most popular type of entertainment. Football is especially popular. The only difference between Iranian sports television programs and their Russian and European counterparts is that they practically do not show competitions in women’s sports. Channel 4’s programs are predominantly scientific, educational and cultural in nature.
Channel 5 is entertaining. It is sometimes called “metropolitan” because the programs mostly tell about life in the capital. The news Channel 6 publishes news releases about life in the country and abroad every half hour.
In addition to six national television channels, Iran has 17 local and regional ones, the most famous of which are the channels of the provinces of Fars, Isfahan, Khorasan, Gilan, and Mazandaran.
The most popular television genres are story reports and humorous programs. Over 90 percent of the audience watches them. The least attractive are special scientific and religious programs.
The most important authorities consider programs about the Koran (promoting Shiite Islam), about the “spiritual values of the West” (considering the character and way of life of Western people, the “reasons for disappointment” in this way of life, the roots of social conflicts and crises), about the leader of the Islamic revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini. Separate programs are devoted to politics, economics and security in the Caucasus and Central Asia, Zionism, as well as the non-aligned movement, the Taliban (who are sharply condemned in Iran). Among the political ones, which include news, analytical programs and reviews, the most popular is the “Newspaper Review” on Channel 5, where the content of the most important publications is presented in an interesting and detailed manner.
It is noteworthy that about a third of Iranian television programs are musical. They demonstrate the achievements of various musical styles - from classical to jazz and pop music.
The strict norms of Islamic morality regarding women turn out to be not so categorical. Of the 18 thousand employees of the Iranian State Television and Radio Broadcasting, half are women, and among the TV presenters they are the majority.
Control questions:
1 Structure of Iranian electronic media.
2 Iran Television.
IRAN NEWS AGENCIES
The main news agency of the Islamic Republic of Iran is the Information Agency of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Khabargozariye Jomhuriye Eslamiye Iran) - IRNA, established in 1934 under the country's foreign ministry. Currently, IRNA operates under the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance of Iran. The council includes the ministers of culture, economy and finance, as well as two deputies of the Majlis. Broadcasting is carried out to both domestic and international audiences (in English, Chinese and, until 2008, in Russian).
Among the internal tasks of the Agency are the dissemination of information about the situation in the country and abroad, the protection and promotion of the values and culture of the Islamic Republic. International activities are divided geographically, covering four main areas: the Middle East and Africa, Europe and the Americas, and Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
IRNA's resource base is very broad. Since its establishment, partnerships have been established with such global information giants as Reuters, France-Presse, Associated Press and United Press International. The Agency's staff consists of 1,450 people.
Prepares about 1.5 - 2 thousand messages per day in Farsi, English, Arabic, French, Spanish, Turkish, Serbian, Chinese and Russian.
Under the auspices of IRNA, a number of daily newspapers are published, such as Iran (in Farsi), Iran Daily (in English), Al-Wafag (in Arabic), and the sports newspaper Irane Varzeshi (in Farsi).
The news agencies Mehr, Fars, and Islamic Student News Agency (ISKA), which focus mainly on domestic political events, are also considered major players in the Iranian information field.
IRNA has offices and correspondents in all provinces of the country. Its representative offices and offices operate in 30 countries around the world. IRNA is the first foreign news agency to open its representative office in independent Tajikistan. The agency, on the basis of bilateral agreements, exchanges information with more than 30 world news agencies.
In addition to those mentioned above, there are nine more small news agencies operating in Iran, most of which specialize in certain topics, for example, agriculture (“Agricultural Information Agency”), women’s issues (“Women’s Information Agency”), etc.
ISNO is one of Iran's popular news agencies. The agency was created on November 4, 1999. He devotes his activities to news prepared by students of various universities in Iran. The agency began to function on the initiative of Abulfazl Fotekh. The main slogan of their activities is “Every student is a correspondent and every idea is news.”
Iranian news agency "Koran"
The Iranian news agency “Koran” is the first and only one in the Islamic world, specialized in the analytical processing of materials, in accordance with the instructions and prescriptions of the Holy Quran. Reflects events taking place in the regions of Iran and the whole world: political, cultural and artistic, or other information for children, youth and adults in accordance with the standards and instructions of the Holy Quran. It was created in 2003 on the initiative of the leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Muhammad Hotami, with the aim of promoting divine culture and the creation of the Holy Quran among different layers of society; informing about daily and social events related to the Quran within the country and abroad; contribute to the knowledge of the Qur'an of different strata of society, as well as the transfer and exchange of experience and compilation of programs in the country and abroad, etc., collection and processing of daily news, conversations and interviews from regional information services.
Control questions:
1The role and place of IRNA in the information market of Iran.
2ISNO – student news agency.
3Information agency "Koran".
CHAPTERII.
JOURNALISM OF AFGHANISTAN
The state is located in southwest Asia. Territory area 647.6 thousand. km2. Population 26.8 million people. (2001). Ethnic composition: Pashtuns - 38%, Tajiks - 25%, Hazaras - 19%, Turkmens, aimaks, Uzbeks, etc. Political system - republic. The head of state is the president. The legislative body is a unicameral parliament. The country's territory is divided into 31 provinces and one central district. The official languages of Afghanistan are Dari (Tajik) and Pashtun. The capital is Kabul.
The territory of modern Afghanistan has been inhabited by Aryan (Iranian) peoples since time immemorial and for several millennia was one of the centers of Iranian civilization. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC. On the territory of present-day Afghanistan, the Bactrian state was formed, which also included part of modern Tajikistan, Iran and Pakistan. During this period, the prophet Zoroaster lived and the holy book of the Zoroastrians, “Avesta,” arose.
In the middle of the 5th century. BC. The territory of Afghanistan was part of the world empire of the Achaemenids. The empire collapsed after the attack of Greek conquerors led by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. and the territory of Afghanistan became part of the Seleucid state and later the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.
From the 1st century BC. until the 7th century AD Afghanistan was part of the powerful Iranian Kushanid and Sassanid empires. From the middle of the 7th century. the region was conquered by Arab invaders. From the beginning of the 9th century. the territory of present-day Afghanistan, then called Khorasan, was ruled by the Tajik dynasties of the Tahirids and Saffarids, who were the governors of the caliphs. At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. The Tajik Samanid state was formed with its capital in Bukhara, which included territories from the Tien Shan to the Suleiman Mountains and from Bukhara and Samarkand to the Persian Gulf. Khorasan became part of the Samanid state, which it belonged to until 999. In the subsequent centuries of the X1-XII centuries. Khorasan was ruled by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids. Throughout the XIII century. Khorasan lands were part of the possessions of Genghis Khan. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are considered the darkest period in the history of Khurasan, which became an arena of contention between the Mughals of India, the Saufavides of Iran and the Uzbek Shaybanids. In 1747, the Pashtun Ahmadshah Durrani managed to unite the territory of modern Afghanistan into a single state, which became known as “Afghanistan”. Afghanistan was subject to British colonial expansion. Anglo-Indian forces captured Kandahar and Kabul. Anti-British unrest began in the country. The following year, the Anglo-Indian army was forced to retreat to India and was killed by Afghan guerrillas during the retreat. Of the 16 thousand-strong British army, only one person survived. Britain refrained from occupying Afghanistan. Britain launched a new invasion of Afghanistan with a 35,000-strong army. This time, the Emir of Afghanistan had to sign an agreement according to which Afghanistan came under the protectorate of Great Britain. A holy war was declared against the British colonialists, which forced Great Britain to recognize the independence of Afghanistan that same year.
Until the beginning of the 70s. Afghanistan remained a country with a monarchical government system. In 1973, a palace coup took place, as a result of which King Zahir Shah was removed by his cousin Prince Mohammed Daoud, who proclaimed Afghanistan a republic. In 1978, another bloody coup took place, as a result of which pro-communist forces came to power. A popular uprising against the new communist government soon broke out. At the end of December 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan under the pretext of supporting the Afghan government. As a result of many years of fighting between the Soviet army and Afghan resistance forces, about 15 thousand Soviet soldiers and hundreds of thousands of the local population died. Soviet troops were forced to leave Afghanistan in 1989. At the beginning of 1992, representatives of the popular resistance forces led by Tajik Burhanuddin Rabbani came to power. In the mid-90s, a radical Afghan Islamist movement was born - a group "Taliban", which soon captured most of the country, pushing government forces to the north of Afghanistan. The Taliban regime was overthrown in 2001 as a result of a military campaign by international coalition forces in Afghanistan.
Control questions:
1History of the formation of the state of Afghanistan.
2Palace coups in Afghanistan in the 70s of the XX century.
3Social and political situation in Afghanistan at the end of the 20th century.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESS OF AFGHANISTAN
The Afghan media are an integral part of the entire global information space. They developed and improved in the fierce struggle of progressive forces for the freedom and independence of the country,
In contrast to the Iranian periodical press, book printing, printing presses, and printing houses appeared in Afghanistan only in the late 60s and early 70s. XIX century. The publication of the first newspaper in Afghanistan, called “Shams-an-Nahar” / “Midday Sun”, was founded by the decree of Emir Sher Ali Khan in 1873. It was published for about five years, until the beginning of the second Anglo-Afghan war of 1878 - I860. However, currently no number of Shams-an-Nahar has been found. Many of its aspects, including language, ideological and thematic content, editor, geography of distribution, circulation and many other issues remain uncertain.
Although the beginning of the national periodical press had been laid, unfortunately, under the conditions of colonialism and ongoing internecine wars, there was no talk of freedom of the press in the full sense of the concept. The colonialists rudely interfered with the work of editorial teams, which affected the ideological and thematic content of newspapers, magazines, and published books. Materials exposing the atrocities of the invaders on Afghan soil disappeared from the pages of periodicals; foreign information was mainly focused on the events that took place in Great Britain. These were reprints from English newspapers published in India. Other materials that were read by a limited number of people were also reprinted from these newspapers.
The next limiting factor was the complicated overall design of the newspapers. Typically, texts in newspapers were typed using the typical Afghan set of letters. Punctuation and illustration were missing. Articles and other materials were separated from each other by four dots grouped in a diamond shape, as well as headings inscribed in a graphically designed frame.
Thirdly, due to the illiteracy of almost the entire population of Afghanistan, the readership, unfortunately, was limited.
Thus, the periodical press of the initial period of Afghanistan did not become a powerful means of disseminating knowledge in the economic, social, political And especially cultural spheres; it did not become the bearer of the ideas of parties, public and state organizations around which progressive forces were grouped, positively influencing through the press the activities of governments and legislators in Afghanistan. Whether the resources of journalism would be mobilized for the benefit of the people of the country or not depended on the decision of only one person. They were emirs who localized and individualized the dissemination of all news in the state in their own interests.
The formation and development of Afghan journalism took place in extremely difficult conditions at the beginning of the 20th century. The formation of its system was adversely affected by such “harsh social processes of everyday life” as physical and political persecution of professional newspaper employees, severe censorship, and the arbitrariness of emirs and clergy. The daily companion of Afghan journalists was the heroic struggle to win freedom of speech, a truthful understanding of the socio-historical process, the harsh realities of life, and the plight of millions of peasants, workers, and artisans. To achieve at least moderate independence of printed publications and protect them from the whims of those who had unlimited power in the country. Unfortunately, the emirs, the state apparatus, the bureaucratic, conservative clergy and other classes in power were always deaf to the pressing tasks of the press to effectively form and reflect public opinion, to comprehend the politically, economically, socially and culturally complex reality , the harsh truth of the hard life of the people, lawlessness and lack of justice. Afghan journalism during the period of 1873 was not only unable to fulfill the task of understanding real Afghan life, but also failed to increase the mobilization of millions of people to overthrow authoritarian regimes, end internecine bloody wars and interethnic conflicts.
Control questions:
1The emergence of the first newspaper in Afghanistan.
2Features of the development of periodical press at its initial stage
formation.
3Afghan journalism at the end of the 19th century.
MEDIA OF AFGHANISTAN DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR
With the outbreak of World War II, the government took new steps to develop the press. For the first time in Afghanistan, a Press Department was organized at the level of the Ministry of Information, which began to coordinate the activities of all journalism throughout the country. But due to a shortage of paper and printing equipment, the format and circulation of newspapers was halved, and since 1942, many of them “Storai”, “Bidar”, “Tulai Afghan”, “Itihadi Mashreki”, “Iqtisad”, “Ithadi Khanabad” in general ceased to exist. In fact, only with the help of radio was it possible to get acquainted with operational information. However, in such provinces as Kunduz, Baghlan, Herat, Kandahar there was not a single radio receiver at all.
In the early 50s. commercial newspapers are published. Particularly popular among them were “Batan”, “Nedaiye Khalik”, “Angar” and “Vlus”. They not only directly participated in the formation of public opinion, but also had a strong influence on the government press, which, in order to fight against progressive publications, was forced to change the nature of its publications.
On the pages of the private press in Afghanistan, the attitudes of individual class groups, both participating and seeking to participate in state politics, are reflected, certain views on the situation of workers, peasants, small artisans, feudal lords, industrialists, officials and employees are formed, and calls are made for unification on the basis of sympathy one program or doctrine. Along with the press organs that adhered to the moderate positions “Naime Viddak”, “Karavan”, “Mosavat”, newspapers of a very radical orientation appeared “Naime Imruz”, “Khalq”, “Parcham”, “Sadai Avam”, “ | Sholeya Javid” who sought to write about deepening socio-economic reforms. The latter circumstance gave rise to publications that came out in defense of traditional institutions and the socio-political and ideological doctrines corresponding to them (for example, “Vahdat” and Tokhadz.”
The alternative (commercial) press that emerged for the first time in the country, however, even in such difficult socio-political conditions, had an effective influence on the formation of public opinion and created the preconditions for profound changes in the structures of power, which ultimately led to a revolutionary explosion.
Control questions:
1Periodical press of Afghanistan during the Second World War.
2Peculiarities of publishing in the private press of Afghanistan.
3The emergence of commercial publications in Afghanistan.
MEDIA OF AFGHANISTAN DURING THE RULE
KING MUHAMMAD ZAHIR SHAH
With the coming to power of Muhammad Zahir Shah, the situation of national journalism in Afghanistan worsened even more. He took the first steps to curb the media in relation to radio, ordering its complete destruction and radio journalists “to be given special certificates for life imprisonment” for distributing foreign music in the country. This was followed by other repressive measures. The king crossed out those articles of the Constitution that related to “the activities of newspapers and magazines in the state.” The government united all existing printing houses, and there were 16 of them, and nationalized them. On their basis, one state printing house was created. The publication of all commercial and private periodicals was prohibited. Strict control was established over the resumption of publication of such newspapers and magazines, which, on the personal instructions of Muhammad Zahir Shah, was to be exercised by two ministries - internal and foreign affairs. Thus, a long period of strong censorship pressure on the press reigned in Afghanistan.
Print from the early 30s. even in comparison with the previous period, both qualitatively and quantitatively, it was at a lower ideological and thematic level. During this period, only 16 newspapers were published compared to the previous 23. Most of them were characterized by a low professional level. The newspapers completely lacked illustrations, photographs, cartoons made by artists, columns, headers, headlines, etc. Periodicals were sold at high prices, were published in small (1000 - 1500) circulations, and, naturally, the geography of their distribution and readership were narrow.
Among the publications of this period, the newspaper “Anis” was more democratic in nature, since on its pages many of the evils of government in Afghanistan in the 30s were comprehended, while “Itifani Islama”, “Ithadi”, “Khanabar”, “ Tuloy Afghan", "Bidar" and others, being government printed organs, glorified the king, his family, and relatives-ministers. Moreover, they attacked the hungry and those who did not have their own hearth with rude, obscene criticism. The tone in this regard was set by the Ithadi newspaper, which called the peasants “loafers”, “lazy people” who needed to be flogged every morning before work.
RADIO. By the beginning of 1936, construction of a 20-kilowatt transmitter that operated on medium waves was completed in Afghanistan. The number of radio receivers has also increased - up to 5.5 - 6 thousand for the entire population. However, due to financial difficulties, the development of radio studios was hampered; the necessary equipment was not imported, which negatively affected the expansion and increase in the scale and efficiency of this powerful media outlet in Afghanistan.
The strictest control was established over national radio broadcasting by senior officials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Senior police officials were constantly present at the radio station. Some of them guarded the radio center, others monitored the news of radio journalists, especially during their speeches on the microphone.
So, the formation of the Afghan media during the period when King Nadir Shah Mohamed came to power (1933) took place in difficult conditions of persecution of progressive journalists, draconian state laws that suppress freedom of speech and do not contribute to a truthful understanding of reality.
Control questions:
1The situation of national journalism in Afghanistan during the reign
Muhammad Zahir Shah.
2Characteristics of the press of Afghanistan in the 30s of the XX century.
3Development of radio in Afghanistan in the first half of the 20th century.
AFGHANISTAN MEDIA AFTER
APRIL REVOLUTION1978 G.
The victory of the April Revolution laid the foundation for a new, progressive economic system and created all the necessary conditions for the fruitful work of Afghan journalism and journalists.
The media have become a vital need for every person and society as a whole. Afghanistan's media system became an integral part of the turbulent period of change following the April Revolution.
The Afghan media of this period had an inextricable connection with the aspirations, concerns and aspirations of millions of people, with the policies, tasks and goals of the April Revolution, the state apparatus, and the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Among them are the newspapers “Anis”, “Khivad”, “Hakikate Inkilabe saur”, “Payam”, “Kabul New Times”, “Kar”, “Dekhkan”, “Torash”, “Sitara” and many others.
Afghan radio was broadcast on five channels, national television, as well as the Bakhtar news agency, effectively influenced politics and public opinion. The emerging powerful structure of the press was subordinated to the general tasks of the state reorganization of society and was an integral part of the cultural revolution that began in the country.
Of key importance in the formation of the media system after the victory of the April Revolution and the process of building a new life were the coordination and interaction between the editorial teams of newspapers, magazines, radio broadcasting, television and the Bakhtar news agency among themselves, as well as with the state apparatus, which provided the press with genuine freedom in understanding the peaceful and combat everyday life of the Afghan people. Naturally, this coordination and interaction was associated with new traditions that were established in conditions of freedom and democracy, the socio-political system and the needs of state promotion To humanism, progress and harmony in all the most important spheres of social life.
Control questions:
1The victory of the April revolution in Afghanistan in 1978 and its impact on
development of journalism in the country.
2The role of journalism in the social and political life of Afghanistan
after the revolution.
MEDIA OF AFGHANISTAN AFTER THE TALIBAN CAME TO POWER»
However, with the Taliban coming to power, all existing media in the country were closed. The Taliban created their own media system, which, as in any totalitarian regimes, was designed to propagate the ideology of the regime. The Taliban's central platforms were the Sharia newspaper and the Caliphate magazine. If the Sharia newspaper mainly covered internal problems, respectively, from a religious point of view, the Caliphate magazine promoted the international views of the Taliban, the essence of which was the creation of an Islamic caliphate in the region.
The Taliban, based on the former state radio station Kabul, created a new radio channel called Sharia. The radio station broadcast in five languages - Dari, Pashto, Urdu, Arabic and English. Each province had a local radio station with the same name. As for television, the Taliban strictly prohibited this type of media. During these years, the only television station operated in the north of Afghanistan, which remained under the control of the anti-Taliban forces of the Northern Alliance. The station broadcast only 2-3 hours a day and reached a limited audience in the Badakhshan region.
Since the overthrow of the Taliban regime in 2001, major changes have occurred in the Afghan media system. In just a few years, a huge amount of printed and electronic media has appeared. In 2002, several international organizations and countries provided large sums of money to create hundreds of independent sources of information. Newspapers, radio and television stations were established throughout the country. According to the Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, in general, more than 350 newspapers and magazines, 45 radio stations and 12 television channels are registered in the country.
However, in practice, not all registered media operate. At least more than 100 printed publications are published regularly, of which 80 are from the capital. The most popular newspapers are the independent daily newspaper Armoni Milli (5.5 thousand copies) and the weekly Kalid (Key, 15 thousand copies).
Electronic media of Afghanistan
Of all the registered TV channels, only five operate - the state-owned TV Kobul and private ones - Tulu, Oyina, Ariana and Afghan TV. A special place in the country's information market is occupied by the private television station Tulu, created by an Afghan-Australian media group. It stands out in terms of its level of efficiency and coverage of ongoing events in the country. “Tulu” is not inferior to international standards in terms of technical quality of broadcasts.
The most successful radio stations in modern Afghanistan are Ormon, Orieno, Kalid, Navo, Sadoi zan, Watandor and Subh ba khair, Afgoniston. However, the Farsi-language programs of the world radio stations BBC and Liberty are widely popular among the population of Afghanistan.
This remarkable development of the media in post-Taliban Afghanistan was largely facilitated by the adoption of a liberal media law. Thanks to the new law, Afghan media surpass neighboring countries in terms of freedom of speech and access to government information. However, serious problems related to the safety of journalists remain in the country. In recent years, several journalists have been killed in connection with their professional activities.
Regarding freedom of speech in Afghanistan, the new President Hamid Karzai is a staunch supporter of the development of a free press in the country, as evidenced by his adoption of a new law to regulate the activities of print and electronic media, which is primarily aimed at the development of the media and is designed to ensure them freedom, as well as access for all journalists to government information.
Despite initial success when, after the fall of the Taliban regime, several international organizations and countries provided large sums of money to create hundreds of independent news sources, Afghanistan's media today faces new challenges. Newspapers, radio and television stations were established throughout the country. Today, one of the problems is financial, since several independent information sources have found it difficult to continue to function after the withdrawal of funding from funding agencies. As a result, many have to use funds from local political parties to continue their activities.
Another problem is the lack of a media training center in the country, the need for serious educational institutions, since Afghanistan still lacks full-scale training programs, despite the fact that significant sums have been spent on training Afghans in basic journalistic skills.
Control questions:
1The situation of Afghan journalism after the movement came to power
"Taliban".
2Changes in the Afghan media system after the overthrow of the Taliban regime.
3The main problems in the development of the media in Afghanistan under the post-Taliban regime.
AFGHAN PERIODICAL PRESS INemigration
The modern Afghan press in St. Petersburg was created by Afghan refugees who fled Afghanistan during the entire period of the civil war in the country. According to experts, the largest number of Afghans left the country in 1992 after the fall of the pro-communist regime.
Among the large number of Afghan refugees, there are a significant number of Afghan intellectuals who are in one way or another connected with the former Soviet Union. Based on this, they chose Soviet cities as a refuge, in particular St. Petersburg, where representatives of various nationalities of Afghanistan formed Afghan communities and cultural centers. One of the tasks of these communities is to publish and distribute periodicals among people from Afghanistan. The publication of periodicals began in 1997 with the publication of two newspapers: “Bakhir” - “Flow” and “Nida” - Call.” The Bakhir (Flow) newspaper is published in the two main languages of Afghanistan.
The main purpose of the publication is to popularize and disseminate the literary, historical, legal and other cultural values of Afghanistan and the Afghan people. The publication is trying in every possible way to promote the restoration of a united and independent Afghanistan.
The second edition of “Nida” (“Call”) is the organ of the Afghan Cultural Center in St. Petersburg. Published twice a month with a circulation of 500 copies. Like the Bahir newspaper, Nida is also published in two languages - Pashto and Dari. It is a free publication, as it does not focus on any parties or groups operating in Afghanistan, does not defend the interests of certain peoples and ethnic groups of the country, and does not promote the religious views of any specific religious groups of Afghan society.
Materials regularly published in the newspaper are divided into the following main headings:
News from Afghanistan;
News concerning the St. Petersburg Afghan community;
— Translations and comments thereon of the laws of the Russian Federation defining the status of refugees and the conditions of stay of foreign citizens in the Russian Federation;
Materials on violations of the rights of Afghan refugees in various countries of the world;
— articles about the historical past of Afghanistan;
Materials relating to various aspects of the cultural and socio-political life of Afghanistan, including the international relations of this country;
- Afghan poetry and humor in Pashto and Dari languages;
Materials related to raising children, methods of teaching them in the traditions of Afghan society and preserving the cultural continuity of generations;
— articles on religious topics, mainly relating to the main provisions of Islam, articles of a scientific, educational and popular science nature.
Control questions:
1The reasons for the emergence of the Afghan press in emigration.
2Characteristics of publications published in St. Petersburg.
3 “Nida” (“Call”) is the organ of the Afghan Cultural Center.
AFGHANISTAN NEWS AGENCIES
1. "Bakhtar" - The national news agency was founded in 1940 in Kabul. The agency is the main source of news for all media in Afghanistan.
2. AIP(ISLAMIC PRESSAAFGHANISTAN)
The Afghanistan Information Agency (AIP) was founded in 1982 in Peshawar by Muhammad Yaqub Sharafat at a time when there were virtually no other sources of information about Afghanistan, which was under Soviet occupation. Accordingly, only pro-Soviet media operated in Afghanistan, including TASS, Pravda and other communist newspapers, which supported and justified the occupation.
The main Afghan source of information was the state news agency Bakhtar. However, his messages were tendentious, calling the Mujahideen “villains” and “troublemakers.” Naturally, the need arose to create a media outlet with alternative views on the events taking place in Afghanistan. In August 1982, Muhammad Yaqub Sharafat created a news agency in Peshawar. Peshawar was a natural choice as it was a center for Afghan refugees, mujahideen and other patriotic forces.
Regular AIP news has been broadcast since September 1, 1982. The information was collected in Peshawar by a group of Mujahideen, using wireless systems to transmit it. Recognizing that information provided by the mujahideen was often exaggerated, the agency also provided interviews with eyewitnesses, including travelers arriving from the scene. Starting from the first days, the main principle of the agency's work to this day is confirmation of information from three sources.
Due to the lack of necessary equipment, including the lack of a fax and other electronic communication systems, the news agency encountered difficulties at the beginning of its work. The only equipment the agency had was one bicycle, which belonged to its director, and a telephone in the office.
However, despite the difficulties, AIP has within a short time gained a certain authority as a reliable and objective source of information. This attracted subscribers, including the Islamabad International News Agencies Bureau, major news agencies like Reuters, AP, Voice of America, BBC and UPI. Information was provided by the above-mentioned agency by telephone free of charge.
On February 15, 1989, after the withdrawal of USSR troops from Afghanistan, AIP, obtaining and disseminating fresh and relevant news, continued its work during the reign of Najibullah. The agency was the first to report on the overthrow of the Najibullah regime, the emergence of the Taliban movement, various clashes and skirmishes between the warring parties, and the activities of the Northern Alliance against the Taliban in northern Afghanistan. Interviews with Taliban leader Mullah Omar, as well as Northern Alliance commander Ahmadshah Massoud, were broadcast by this agency.
With the return of international media to Kabul, a period of intense media competition begins for AIP. By obtaining fresh and relevant information, in particular about the bombing of Kabul by American forces, information about the activities of Osama bin Laden and his assistants, the attack by American coalition forces and its impact on Afghan society, the agency managed to maintain its authority even in the face of strong competition. Moreover, the agency gained subscribers among international news agencies, newspapers and television channels: BBC World, Mainichi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun, Radio Free Europe, Pakistan State Radio, etc.
AIP's performance improved with the introduction of digital technology in the final days of Taliban rule, but mobile communications remained a major challenge. In November 2001, after the fall of the Taliban regime, the Thuraya system was established in Afghanistan, which helped the agency cover inaccessible and remote regions of the country.
In terms of funding, AIP is an independent news agency, as it is not funded by the government, non-governmental organizations or any Western institutions or Arab organizations. Although other news agencies in the region depend on one or the other type of funding.
As noted, in the early years of its operation, AIP provided its services free of charge, but as costs and workload increased, the agency established monthly subscription fees for its users. AIP information is provided in three languages: English, Urdu and Pashto.
Thus, being the first independent and free news agency, it has been working continuously since its creation, fulfilling its main task - the fight against foreign interference and informing the world community about the atrocities of the invaders.
3. Pajwok Afghan News
Pajhwok Afghan News is Afghanistan's largest independent news agency, headquartered in Kabul. It has eight regional bureaus and a nationwide network of reporters and correspondents. Pajhwok provides information in Dari, Pashto and English, as well as photographs, videos and audio clips to television and radio stations.
The agency is the main provider of daily news to the media in Afghanistan and is considered the most reliable source of information about the country. Pajhwok is completely managed by an Afghan company.
Pajhwok's information products cover a variety of topics: elections, security issues, health issues, reconstruction, economic development issues, and social issues.
Pajhwok subscribers access the latest news through the agency's website.
Pajhwok has photo services. Pajhwok Photo Services provides daily photos of major events. Pajhwok also provides audio clips and video footage. The Pajhwok.com website is updated throughout the day, seven days a week, with news in English, Pashto and Dari languages.
Pajhwok's subscribers include major Afghan and international news agencies, Afghan ministries, non-governmental organizations, diplomats, entrepreneurs and prominent figures of the country.
4. "Kabulpress». Kabulpress.org was founded in 2004 by Kamran Mir Hazar in Kabul. Kabulpress is a unique forum that allows its members to discuss issues affecting the country and region. In particular, problems of human rights, political, social, religious and economic issues. The activities of Kabulpress are aimed at protecting freedom of speech and thought, developing critical thinking about problems related to Afghanistan.
Kabulpress is a well-known resource and is mentioned by the world media, as well as by various media organizations such as The Guardian newspaper (England), The New York Times, Washington Post, BBC, Reporters Without Borders and Human Rights Watch.
Kabulpress considers its main goal not only to provide information about current events, but also to draw attention to the following problems:
Human rights violations;
Women's rights and their importance in social and political development;
The main ways of peaceful coexistence of various political and cultural groups;
Exposing corruption;
Test questions
When answering closed test questions, cross out one cell with the correct option; When answering free options, write your options in the free cells of the table.
| QUESTIONS | NUMBERS OF ANSWER OPTIONS | ||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||
| 1. | History of Iranian periodicals starts with a newspaper |
“Kogazi Akhbor” (“News Paper” | leaf | “Vakoei ittifokiya” (“Diary of current events” | "Keyhan" ("Universe") |
| 2. | Iranian periodicals were founded | In the second half of XYII | In the second half of the XVIII | In the second half of the XIX | In the second half of XX |
| 3. | The Islamic revolution happened | In 1979 | 1958 | 1980 | 2000 |
| 4. | The first uncensored newspaper was called | "Kogazi Akhbor" (News Paper) | "Eve" ("Law") | “Chekhranamo” (“Mirror”), | "Hikmat" ("Wisdom") |
| 5. | Publications of modern Iranian print media are classified (remove incorrect ones) | conservative | centrist | reformist | democratic |
| 6. | Iran News Agencies | IRNA | ISNA | ||
| 7. | The first newspaper in Afghanistan was called | "Shams-an-nahor" ("Midday Sun") | "Nedaiye Hulk" | "Iqtisad" ("Economy" |
"Vatan" (“Fatherland”) |
| 8. | The development of the periodical press in Afghanistan began | In the second half of XYII | In the second half of the XVIII | In the second half of the XIX | In the second half of XX |
| 9. | The central stands of the Taliban were (remove the incorrect ones) | Sharia newspaper | magazine "Caliphate" | radio station "Kabul" | Afghan TV |
| 10. | The most successful radio stations in modern Afghanistan are considered | 1. "Ormon" | 3. "Navo" | 5. "Kalid" | 7.? |
| 11. | Afghanistan's news agencies are | "Bakhtar" | |||
| 12. | Iran and Afghanistan have freedom of speech | everyone | citizens of Iran and Afghanistan | journalists | officials |
| 13. | For journalists in Iran and Afghanistan, international legal standards: | have no effect | are valid if Iran and Afghanistan have signed the relevant international treaty. | apply in any case. | valid if they do not contradict national laws |
| 14. | No censorship allowed | from government agencies | by officials | from public associations | on the part of all named entities |
LITERATURE
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Afghanistan: the revolution continues. M., 1984.
Afghanistan. Directory.-M., I984.
Afghanistan today. Directory. - Dushanbe, 1985.
Barzin M. Sayre dar matbuoti Iron. — Teron, 1973.
Beglov S.I. Monopoly of the word. - M., 1969.
Valieva D. V. Soviet-Iranian cultural relations (1921-1969) - Tashkent, 1965.
Verstakov V.G. Afghanistan diary. -M., 1983.
Gurevich N.M. Afghanistan: features of socio-economic development. - M. 1983.
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Directory. - M., 1981.
Ezhov G.P. Our neighbor Afghanistan. -M., 1985.
Ivanov M. S. Iranian revolution of 1905-1911. -M., 1967.
Ignatov A.V. Revolution born in April. -M., 1980.
Kiyonuri N. Chihilu-panj salt muboriza). -Tehran, 1985.
Melikov O. S. Establishment of the dictatorship of Reza Shah in Iran. -M., 1961.
Mikhailov S.A. Modern foreign journalism. - St. Petersburg, 2002.
Nuraliev A. N. Tarihi journalism and khorichi. - Dushanbe, 2001.
Polyakov G. A. Revolutionary Afghanistan. -M., 1981, etc.
Pruttskov G.V. Introduction to world journalism. - Moscow, 2003.
Prokhorov E.P. Journalism and democracy. - M. 2001.
Sikoev R.R. Afghan intelligentsia in emigration: political and cultural centers and their printed publications. Sat. "Afghanistan: war and problems of peace." M., 1998.
Usmonov I.K. Journalism (in two parts). - Dushanbe, 2005.
Speaking about the modernization of Iran (Persia), it should be borne in mind that this state was geographically more distant from Western countries (it was more “eastern” not only geographically, but also socio-culturally) and, unlike the Ottoman Empire, did not have numerous and bourgeois-enterprising Christian communities (with the exception of the Armenians). Thus, the lack of numerous and well-established contacts with Western Europeans complicated modernization in this country.
Another important factor was the presence of a powerful influence on the government of the Shiite clergy, which had exceptional influence on the local population. On the other hand, Shiite Islam and the clergy did not potentially act as an insurmountable obstacle to reforms in Iran. Shiism as a socially mobilizing factor in the country could play a key role depending on the progress of reforms, the possibility of a compromise between the authorities and the clergy, either towards their approval or categorical rejection. And this factor, as events showed, did not work in favor of the reformers.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The rulers of Iran began to view European cultural influence and borrowings in the military-technical field more favorably. For influence on Iran, intense rivalry developed between the British and French military-political missions, in which the British won. Iran's military defeats and territorial losses in the wars with Russia (1804-1813) and (1826-1828) pushed the country's leadership into the need for reforms. But the key role was played by an internal factor - the religious and social popular Babid uprising in 1848-1850.
In 1844, Sayyid Ali-Mohammed declared himself the Bab, the “door” (or gate) through which the expected twelfth Imam as the Messiah, the Mahdi, was about to descend to earth. Subsequently, he declared himself this imam and proclaimed a new radical social teaching with pronounced egalitarian ideas. Despite the brutal suppression of this uprising, the anti-government banner of the Babis was taken up by Hussein Ali, who called himself Behaullah. He declared himself a supporter of non-violent actions and, having adopted many of Western ideas, spoke out against wars, for tolerance, equality, and the redistribution of property into a kind of supranational global community. Despite the defeat, both Babism and Baha'ism nevertheless prepared the way for the necessary transformations.
Mirza Taghi Khan, better known as Amir Nizam, who was appointed first vizier in 1848 and then first minister, became a convinced reformer and ideologist of Iranian reforms. Having visited the Ottoman Empire and Russia, he managed to convince Shah Nasr ed-Din (1848-1896) of the need for reforms.
First of all, the army was reorganized and the medieval order, which was most restrictive for the development of the state, was eliminated. State manufactories appeared, the Darol-Fonun Higher School (House of Sciences) was founded, where about 200 students studied. Young Iranians were sent abroad to study, and European teachers began to be invited to the country. Amir Nizam tried to limit the influence of the higher clergy on state affairs, which brought upon himself the irreconcilable conservative opposition led by the leader of the Tehran clergy.
The conservative clergy, together with the princes of the Shah's house, were able to convince the Shah of the destructiveness of Amir Nizam's reforms. The latter was removed from all posts at the end of 1851, exiled and soon executed. However, the reform initiative of Amir Nizam did not disappear; it was picked up by Malcolm Khan, who, while in the diplomatic service in France, even joined the Masonic lodge. Returning to his homeland, Malkom Khan created in 1860 an educational and religious organization that resembled the Faramushkhane Masonic Lodge in form, in which there were many high-ranking officials, including the son of the Shah himself. This organization was engaged in propaganda under a religious guise (secular teaching in a religious society would not be accepted at all) of the ideas and values of the French Revolution: freedom of personality and property, freedom of thought and religion, freedom of speech, press, assembly, equality of rights, etc. But the traditionalists and conservative clergy were not asleep; this time they were able to convince the Shah that the activities of this organization were destructive for the Islamic faith itself. As a result, in October 1861, Faramushkhane was dissolved, and Malkom Khan himself, very famous in the West, was sent into honorable exile for diplomatic work.
The next attempt to reform the country was made in 1870 by the Shah's appointee, Prime Minister Hussein Khan. Carte blanche to carry out reforms was issued by the Shah himself, who repeatedly visited Russia and Europe and was personally convinced of the need for reforms. Administrative reform was carried out. Secular schools appeared. But the reforms basically consisted of a widespread distribution of industrial and natural resources for monopoly development to English and Russian capitalists. The events themselves were very superficial and did not affect the foundations of the existing system. But this time, even such cautious reforms caused sharp opposition from conservatives, primarily the clergy, and in 1880, under their pressure, the Shah fired Hussein Khan.
Reforms within the socio-political system almost ceased, but the government increasingly opened the way to foreign companies. At the end of the 19th century. the country was placed under almost complete control of English and Russian capital. The country was flooded with cheap foreign manufactured goods, competition with which undermined local crafts and hampered the creation of national industry. Actually, there was no national industry; it was replaced by foreign, mainly English industry. As a result, Iran turned into a raw materials appendage of the European powers and a sales market for Western (including Russian) products. The British actually controlled the oil-rich south of the country, Russia consolidated its influence in the north of Iran. Both powers: Russia and Great Britain actively competed with each other in Iran. In fact, the country was turned into a semi-colony of two powers. Over 80% of Persia's total trade turnover was accounted for by these two countries, and bilateral agreements provided for duty-free import or extremely low taxation of goods from these two countries. In general, the colonialism of Great Britain and Russia accelerated the decomposition of traditional relations in Iran, led to the emergence of an educational movement among the Iranian intelligentsia and contributed to the awakening of national consciousness and the gradual formation of bourgeois ideology. The beginning of the collapse of traditional social ties raised the question of the future of the country, aroused interest in the idea of social progress in general and in the search for ways to further develop Iran, which had fallen into semi-colonial dependence. The enlightened Iranian elite increasingly realized that trying to avoid Western innovations was a road to nowhere. The problem was how to combine the dominant traditional Shiite worldview with the inevitable introduction of more secular (European) forms of life, so as not to finally turn into a colony? But this problem was never solved.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the socio-political situation in Iran was very tense. There were broad sections of the population in opposition to the ruling regime: workers, the national bourgeoisie, feudal lords and even part of the clergy. Dissatisfaction with the Shah's regime and the rule of foreigners resulted in the revolution of 1905-1911. The influence of an external factor—the revolution in Russia—immediately affected. In addition, many otkhodnik workers worked in Russia to earn money.
Under pressure from the revolutionary masses, the Shah signed a constitution and opened the Majlis (parliament) in 1906. In 1907, the Majlis legislated fundamental civil rights and freedoms and created secular courts. Local governments, political, religious and professional clubs and organizations began to emerge everywhere. England and Russia, sensing a threat to their interests in Iran, sided with the reaction, providing serious military assistance to the Shah. When these measures did not help, in 1911 Russian troops in the north and British troops in the south entered Iran. In December 1911, a counter-revolutionary coup took place in the country, the Majlis was dissolved, and all power again passed to the Shah. However, the revolutionary turmoil with large episodes of civil war was not in vain; it prepared the ground for the possible modernization of Iranian society.
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