The era of palace coups reasons briefly. The era of palace coups: briefly about the causes and consequences. Legendary Thirty, route

The era of palace coups is the period from 1725 to 1762, when in Russia, after the death of Peter I, several rulers were replaced as a result of state conspiracies and the actions of the guard, led either by the aristocracy or by Peter’s closest associates. Catherine I, Peter II, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna with her son Ivan Antonovich VI, Elizaveta Petrovna, and finally Peter III came to power successively. They ruled with varying degrees of awareness, involvement in the state process, and for different periods of time. In this lesson you will learn about all these events in more detail.

In the event of a palace coup, no qualitative changes occur either in the political, socio-economic, or cultural structure of the state.

Causes of palace coups

1. Expanding the powers of the state apparatus
2. Nobles gaining greater financial, political and cultural independence
3. Creation of the Guard
4. Decree of Peter I on succession to the throne
5. Lack of a legitimate heir to Peter I

Russian Emperor Peter died in 1725IGreat. The imperial entourage was faced with the question of who would ascend the throne. It turned out that Peter's inner circle was divided into two parts. One part is the aristocracy: Golitsyns, Dolgorukies, etc.; the other part are those people who came to power thanks to their skills and knowledge from the very bottom: HELL. Menshikov (Fig. 2), P.A. Tolstoy (Fig. 3), A.I. Osterman (Fig. 4) and other minor nobles and people from abroad. The aristocracy supported Peter's grandsonI, son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei - Peter. Those who came from “Petrov’s nest” wanted to see Peter the Great’s wife, Catherine, on the Russian throne.

Rice. 2. A.D. Menshikov - the main favorite of Catherine I ()

Rice. 3. P.A. Tolstoy - favorite of Catherine I ()

Rice. 4. A.I. Osterman - favorite of Catherine I ()

When there was a discussion in the Government Senate about who to put on the throne of the Russian Empire, Menshikov asked the guard her opinion, and she replied that she wanted to see Catherine as the ruler of RussiaI(Fig. 5). Thus, the guard decided the fate of the throne, and from 1725 to 1727. The Russian Empire was ruled by CatherineI. On the one hand, Catherine was a wonderful person, a wise wife. But, on the other hand, during her reign she did not show herself in any way as an empress. An important event was that she, together with Peter I, opened the Academy of Sciences; she herself created the Supreme Privy Council. The de facto ruler of the country under Catherine I was her favorite A.D. Menshikov, who headed the Supreme Privy Council.

Rice. 5. Catherine I - Russian Empress ()

In 1727 CatherineI died. The opinions of the highest aristocracy, the guard, and the “chicks of Peter’s nest” agreed that the next ruler should have been Peter II(Fig. 6), who became the Emperor of the Russian Empire at the age of less than 12 years. HELL. Menshikov decided that he would be the one to control the teenager. At first, Peter II was under the actual influence of Menshikov. He planned to marry Peter to his daughter M.A. Menshikova and thus become related to the royal power.

Rice. 6. Peter II - Russian Emperor ()

But at the peak of his fame, Alexander Danilovich fell ill, and power passed from his hands to the old family aristocracy. The Golitsyns and Dolgorukys quickly persuaded Peter II not to study, but to lead a riotous lifestyle. After Menshikov recovered and tried to influence Peter, he was sent into exile in Siberia, to the city of Berezov. PeterIIuntil 1730 it remained under the control of the aristocratic nobility. They tried to marry him a second time to E.A. Dolgoruky. But some time before the wedding, Peter II fell ill and died very quickly.

After Peter's deathIIThe Supreme Privy Council met to decide who should give power. There were no direct heirs to the throne, but Peter the Great had two daughters - Elizabeth and Anna, but they were not considered as heirs. Then the Supreme Privy Council remembered that Peter I's brother, Ivan, had three daughters, one of whom, Anna Ioannovna, lived in Courland and was a widow.

The Supreme Privy Council decided to elect Anna Ioannovna (Fig. 7) as Empress of Russia, having previously drawn up “conditions” for her that limited her power. First she signed these conditions in order to get out of Courland and get the position of empress in Russia. But when the Empress arrived in Russia, she saw that the guard and broad circles of the nobility were against the country being ruled by the “supreme leaders”; she, with all her upper circle, broke the rules, thereby showing that she was rejecting the restrictions imposed on her by the Supreme Privy Council. Thus, she ruled, like previous emperors, autocratically.

Rice. 7. Anna Ioannovna - Russian Empress ()

Anna Ioannovna ruled the Russian Empire from 1730 to 1740. She dealt with the Supreme Privy Council and abolished it. The Golitsyns and Dolgorukys were subjected to repression. Characteristic of Anna’s reign was the so-called “Bironovschina” - the dominance of Germans in public administration (named after the Empress’s favorite E.I. Biron (Fig. 8), who was her co-ruler). They occupied all the main government posts: B.K. Minikh (Fig. 9) stood at the head of the army, A.I. Osterman was at the head of the Cabinet of Ministers. The Empress loved to have fun with her German favorites. All these entertainments collected large taxes from the Russian population.

Rice. 8. E.I. Biron is Anna Ioannovna's main favorite ()

Rice. 9. B.K. Minikh - favorite of Anna Ioannovna ()

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the following transformations were made in Russia:

1. Introduction of fashion for balls
2. Completion of construction of Peterhof
3. Introduction of the European lifestyle

A.P. Volynsky tried to somehow limit the dominance of the Germans in Russia, but he could not. For him it ended in execution.

Anna Ioannovna left the Russian throne to her niece Anna Leopoldovna(Fig. 10). But Anna Leopoldovna, at the end of Anna Ioannovna’s life, did not please her, so power passed to Anna Leopoldovna’s son, the recently born Ivan Antonovich VI (Fig. 11). Became regent of Ivan VI E.I. Biron.

Rice. 10. Anna Leopoldovna - mother of Ivan VI ()

Rice. 11. Ivan VI - young Russian emperor ()

Then events developed rapidly - three palace coups took place in one year. Almost immediately after the death of Anna Ioannovna, the once all-powerful Biron was overthrown by a coup by Osterman, who briefly seized supreme state power in Russia. But soon Osterman was overthrown from the throne by Minich, who brought to power Anna Leopoldovna, who did not care about government. She, like Anna Ioannovna, relied on the Germans to govern the country. Meanwhile, a new conspiracy grew behind her back.

As a result, Anna Leopoldovna and Ivan VI ruled Russia from only 1740 to 1741.

Elizaveta Petrovna ( rice. 12), daughter of Peter the Great, was drawn into a conspiracy, with the participation of foreigners, against Anna Leopoldovna and Ivan VI. Relying on the guardsmen, having their powerful support, Elizaveta Petrovna easily carried out a coup d'état and overthrew Anna Leopoldovna And IvanaVI.

Elizabeth I reigned from 1741 to 1761. She loved balls and entertainment. Her favorite favorites were A.G. Razumovsky (Fig. 13) and I.I. Shuvalov (Fig. 14). Under Elizabeth there were wars, victories, attempts at some reforms, and at the same time, in the last years of her life, the often ill empress could not meet with diplomats, ministers and other government officials for months. Elizaveta Petrovna got rid of the “Bironovism” and drove out all the Germans from the top government of the state, opening the way there again for the Russian nobility, which made her a heroine in their eyes.

In 1761 Elizaveta Petrovna died, and her nephew, the son of Anna, the second daughter of Peter the Great, Peter III (Fig. 15) ascended to the Russian throne since the empress did not have a legal husband or children. This emperor ruled the country for less than six months. Conflicting, but most often negative, reviews have been preserved about Peter III. In Russia he was considered not a patriot, since he relied on the Germans, and a stupid person. After all, in his early childhood, Peter was raised as a contender for the throne of Sweden, not the Russian Empire.

Rice. 15. Peter III - Russian Emperor ()

In June 1762, Peter III was overthrown by his own wife, the future Empress Catherine II. With her began a new era of Russian history.

Bibliography

1. Alkhazashvili D.M. The struggle for the legacy of Peter the Great. - M.: Gardariki, 2002.
2. Anisimov E.V. Russia in the middle of the 18th century. (The fight for the legacy of Peter I). - M., 1986.
3. Zagladin N.V., Simonia N.A. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Textbook for 10th grade. - M.: TID "Russian Word - RS", 2008.
4. Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G., Brandt M.Yu. Russia and the world. Antiquity. Middle Ages. New time. Grade 10. - M.: Education, 2007.
5. Pavlenko N.I. Petrov's nest chicks. - M., 1994.
6. Pavlenko N.I. Passion at the throne. - M., 1996.

1. Allstatepravo.ru ().
2. Encyclopaedia-russia.ru ().
3. Grandars.ru ().

Homework

1. Name the reasons for palace coups.
2. Describe the course of palace coups and its political aspect.
3. What were the results of palace coups for Russia?

The era of palace coups (1725 - 1762). Briefly, you can only give names

Church reform

Founding of St. Petersburg. Briefly

On May 1, 1703, during the Northern War, Russian troops took the Swedish fortress of Nyenschanz (at the confluence of the Okhta River with the Neva). The military council headed by Peter I decided that this fortress was not suitable for further strengthening. The island was washed by water on all sides, which would have become a natural barrier in the event of an assault. From the island it was possible to keep enemy ships at gunpoint, no matter where they entered the Neva.

On May 16 (27), 1703, on the day of the Holy Trinity, a fortress was founded on the island. The fortress received its name only on June 29, when the Church of Saints Peter and Paul was founded. Peter named the new fortress “St. Petersburg”, and the city emerging around Hare Island received the same name. The Apostle Peter, according to Christian tradition, was the keeper of the keys to heaven, and this also seemed symbolic to the Russian Tsar: the city bearing the name of his heavenly patron was supposed to become the key to the Baltic Sea. Only a few years later the fortress began to be called Peter and Paul fortress - after the name of its main cathedral.

Immediately after the foundation of the fortress on the banks of the Neva, a wooden house for Peter was cut down in three days. The walls of a wooden house were painted with oil paint to look like brick.

The new city began to grow next to the fortress on the neighboring Berezov Island, this island even began to be called Gorodsky (now it is the Petrograd side). Already in November 1703, the first church of the city was opened here - in memory of the fact that the fortress was founded on the day of the Holy Trinity, it was also called Trinity. It was here in 1721 that Peter I took the title of emperor.

The square on which the cathedral stood was named Trinity. It opened to the Neva, and the first city pier was built here, to which ships moored. The first Gostiny Dvor and the first St. Petersburg tavern “Austeria of the Four Frigates” were built on the square. A drawbridge connected City Island with neighboring Zayachiy Island, where the fortress was located.

Peter I conducted population censuses, which give an idea of ​​the size of the country - it was 19.5 million people, of which 5.4 million were men who paid taxes.

In 1721 ᴦ. The church began to be governed by the Synod (spiritual board). Elimination of the independence of the church.

“The era of palace coups” - a change of power through palace coups.

1722 - Decree of Peter I "Charter on succession to the throne" about the right of the monarch to appoint a successor from among all his relatives.

Consequences of the 1722 decree:

1. The natural principle for Russia of succession to the throne by seniority in the reigning family has been interrupted.

2. The overthrow of the supreme power no longer looked like an attack on holiness.

3. An increase in the number of contenders for the throne, an intensification of the struggle of rival factions for power.

The dispute in the struggle for power in Russia was resolved guard - a privileged military detachment, “faithful servants of the sovereign,” who came from among the serving nobility and foreigners close to the throne. The guards regiments were replenished mainly by the children of nobles and were a kind of officer schools. The guard was used both for the personal protection of the emperor and for organizing control over the activities of various institutions. The position of the guard regiments largely determined who would occupy the throne in St. Petersburg.

After the death of Emperor Peter I in January 1725, there were no direct heirs to the Russian throne in the male line.

Two opposing noble factions:

Titled, but not well-born (Menshikov, Tolstoy, Golovkin, Apraksin, Yaguzhinsky), who owed their rise to Peter I and the “Table of Ranks”

Well-born and hereditary (Golitsyn, Dolgorukovs, Repnin), who believed that it was their ancestral right to rule.

1. Catherine I (1725-1727) On January 28, 1725, at a meeting of the Senate, the issue of successor to Peter I was decided. The main candidates were Ekaterina I Alekseevna(second wife Marta Skavronskaya) and the son of Tsarevich Alexei, who died in the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress, nine-year-old Peter II. She gave birth to daughters Anna and Elizabeth. Catherine I was supported by the guards, as a result of which she became empress.

Being a protege of the guard and the new nobility, Catherine I played the role of a puppet in the hands of A.D.’s group. Menshikov's principle of length of service was further developed.

8 February 1726 decree on a new highest state body – Supreme Privy Council. It consisted of six people: from the unborn nobility - Panin, Apraksin, Osterman, Golovkin, Tolstoy and from the high-born aristocracy - Golitsyn.

He made all government decisions; he was in charge of the army, navy, and collegiums. An attempt to limit autocracy and introduce an aristocratic form of government.

May 6, 1727, Catherine I died, having managed to appoint Tsarevich Peter II Alekseevich, who was 12 years old, as her successor.

2. Peter II(1727-1730) He became engaged to Menshikov’s daughter, in connection with this, His Serene Highness laid claim to the regency and full power. But power went over to the side of the old nobility. Menshikov was arrested, stripped of all ranks and titles, his property was confiscated and he and his family were exiled to Berezov, where he died two years later.

The old noble aristocracy was busy moving the court to Moscow, in marked disdain for the fleet, Peter's institutions and St. Petersburg. The supreme leaders, represented by the Dolgorukovs, wanted to restore the patriarchate, many trade consulates in France and Spain were liquidated, foreign merchants traded duty-free in Russia, and the role of the St. Petersburg port fell. On January 19, 1730, at the age of 15, Peter II died, and the question of replacing the throne again arose.

In the event of the death of Peter II, Catherine I transferred the throne to Anna and Elizabeth. Peter I's brother, Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich (1682 - 1696), had two daughters - Catherine and Anna. The choice fell on Anna Ivanovna (1730 - 1740) - Duchess of Courland.

3. Anna Ioanovna(1730-1740) Princes Dolgorukov and Golitsyn, who had a majority in the Supreme Privy Council, decided that Anna Ivanovna, who did not have formal rights to the throne, would depend on them.

The Supreme Privy Council presented Anna condition– conditions: prohibition of declaring war and making peace, spending public money, choosing a successor to the throne, bringing Biron’s favorite.

During the ceremonial reception in the Kremlin Palace on the occasion of the coronation, Anna broke her condition and accepted the title of autocrat. She abolished the decree on single inheritance, shortened the term of service for nobles, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent the leaders to Siberia, to prison or executed them.

During her reign, Russia was dominated by the Germans. “They poured out like rubbish from a holey bag, covered the courtyard, inhabited the throne, and climbed into all the lucrative positions in management” (V.O. Klyuchevsky). Anna brought her favorite Biron, a semi-literate groom, to Moscow, whom she bestowed with the title of Duke of Courland. Appointment to government posts, expenditure of public funds, awards and privileges depended on him. Embezzlement and denunciations flourished in the country.

She died in 1740, appointing as her successor the newly born grandson of her sister Catherine, Ivan Antonovich.

4. Ivan Antonovich(1740 – 1741), and Anna Leopoldovna (1740 – 1741) became regent. Anna Leopoldovna did not have any social support within the country, she was afraid of the guards, strengthened police surveillance and tried to stay in power with the help of new repressions.

5. Elizaveta Petrovna(1741-1761) November 25, 1741 ᴦ. a coup took place, and the head of state was Elizaveta Petrovna, which was supported by the guard, the Shuvalovs, M. Vorontsov, Sweden offered military assistance, France - monetary assistance.

Removed foreigners from all posts. They were replaced by those who supported the new empress. These are the Trubetskoys, Razumovskys, Shuvalovs, Bestuzhevs-Ryumins. The role of the Senate was restored, abolished decree “On undergrowth”, poll taxes were reduced.

The Russian nobility became the masters of the country by right of origin and position. In 1754 ᴦ. The Noble Bank was established, and in 1761 the “New Genealogical Book” was created.

Elizaveta Petrovna did not sign death sentences and patronized the sciences and art. Elizabeth's foreign policy was also successful. Russia defeated Prussia in the Seven Years' War (1756 - 1762). In the autumn of 1760, Russian troops entered Berlin, at which time Elizaveta Petrovna died,

6. Peter III Fedorovich(1761-1762). Her successor was the son of the Duke of Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich. He was the grandson of Emperor Peter I on his mother's side.

Took the name of Peter III Fedorovich (1761 – 1762). He was an ardent admirer of the Prussian king Frederick II, and therefore made peace with Prussia and gave it all the lands conquered by Russia in the Seven Years' War.

June 28, 1762 - the last palace coup in the 18th century. The conspiracy was led by the wife of Peter III Ekaterina Alekseevna, her favorite Grigory Orlov and his brothers, Field Marshal Hetman K.G. Razumovsky, teacher of Grand Duke Paul, outstanding Russian diplomat N.I. Panin and about forty guards officers. The main force of the conspirators were ten thousand soldiers of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments. Ekaterina Alekseevna was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession to the throne of Catherine II was read out in the Winter Palace. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. The next day, Peter III signed his abdication of the throne, and a few days later, on July 6, the guards killed him: “Disaster had happened, we were drunk and so was he, he argued at the table with Prince Fedor, before we had time to separate them, he It’s gone, we don’t remember what we did...” – Alexey Orlov reports about the circumstances of the death of Peter III in a repentant letter to “Mother Empress”. It was officially announced that the emperor died from a “hemorrhoidal attack and severe colic.”

The German princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Catherine II the Great, became the successor of the affairs of Peter I.

4. Peasant War 1773 – 1775. under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva

"Pugachevshchina"- the result of general dissatisfaction among the lower classes of society with their plight

The movement was led by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev, a Don Cossack who fled to the Yaik River from a Kazan prison. From the age of 17 he took part in the wars with Prussia and Turkey, received a junior officer rank for bravery in battle, was arrested and imprisoned for acting as a petitioner from peasants and ordinary Cossacks. Having fled to the lands of the Yaik Cossacks, Pugachev declared himself the “legitimate Emperor Peter III” and led the anti-government uprising of the Yaik Cossacks.

July 1774 “Manifesto”, “Charter to the Peasants”. “All the landowners who were previously in serfdom and subjection” Pugachev grants “liberty and freedom, lands and hayfields, fishing grounds and salt lakes... without purchase and without quitrent.”

The “Manifesto” freed the country’s population from conscription and taxes and ordered the capture and execution of nobles and “bribe-taking judges.”

1. First stage September 1773 in the lands of the Yaik Cossacks. Detachment E.I. Pugachev, besieged Orenburg, the largest fortress in southeast Russia. Here Pugachev's army grew to 30 - 50 thousand people with 100 guns. The government brought military units led by General A.I. to Orenburg. Bibikov, who in March 1774 inflicted a serious defeat on Pugachev’s troops.

Separate detachments of the comrades-in-arms of “Emperor Peter III” - Salavat Yulaev, Chika Zarubin, Beloborodov, Khlopushi captured Kungur, Krasnoufimsk, Samara, besieged Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, seriously frightening Catherine II.

2. Second stage - April-July 1774. The rebels retreated to the Urals, where their ranks were swelled by serfs and mining workers. From the Urals, Pugachev with 20 thousand troops moved along the Kama to Kazan. At the beginning of July 1774, the rebel army captured Kazan. At the same time, government troops under the command of Colonel Michelson soon approached the city and in a fierce battle the rebels suffered a crushing defeat. Left with a detachment of only 500 people, Pugachev crossed to the right bank of the Volga and began a retreat down the river with the hope of breaking through to the Don, where he could count on the support of the Don Cossacks.

3. Third stage. Anti-serfdom character: the peasants and peoples of the Volga region met Pugachev as their liberator. Retreating along the Volga to the south, the Pugachevites captured Saransk, Penza, and Saratov. The rebels were defeated near Tsaritsyn. With a small detachment, Emelyan Pugachev tried to return to Yaik, but on the way there he was arrested by homely Cossacks and handed over to the authorities.

On January 10, 1775, he was executed along with four of his closest associates on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow.

Causes of defeat:

Spontaneous character

The locality of the movement and its social heterogeneity (different categories of the oppressed population participated in it, each of which pursued its own goals),

Poor weapons of the rebels

Lack of a unified control program.

At Ural factories, for example, wages were significantly increased. New reforms also became a consequence of the Peasant War: Catherine II carried out a whole series of reforms to further centralize and unify government bodies, as well as legislatively consolidate the class rights of the population.

4.Catherine II (1762 – 1796) and “Enlightened absolutism”

At the age of 15, she was “discharged from Germany with the sole purpose of obtaining a legitimate heir for the Russian throne, given the physical and spiritual unreliability of the regular one,” and after the birth of her son, Grand Duke Paul, “they began to treat her like a person who had completed the ordered work and did not which is no longer needed.”

The woman is smart, energetic and ambitious. “18 years of boredom and solitude” made the book a “refuge from melancholy” for her. Reading range: Montesquieu, Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau. Soon Catherine becomes the most educated person at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna. An intelligent statesman and cunning politician, she skillfully selected the people she needed to solve specific problems.

“Those who reproach Catherine II for her abundance of love to the detriment of the state are hardly right. Those of her favorites who had statesmanship and talents, such as G.A. Potemkin, really participated in governing the country. She kept others, deprived of such talents, in her half along with lap dogs.”

Crowned in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin on September 22, 1762. In 1767 - title "Great Wise Mother of the Fatherland", which symbolized the confirmation of her rights to the throne by the national Zemsky Sobor.

Grand Duke Paul was removed from the court. Throughout her subsequent reign, the empress preferred to keep her son at a respectful distance from the throne.

The 18th century was the time of the dominance of enlightenment ideology. The activities of enlightened monarchs, “wise men on the throne,” who, by issuing fair laws, help educate society and establish justice. The state is the main instrument of public good.

"Enlightened absolutism" - the policy of Catherine II, who proclaimed the basis of her reign to be concern for the welfare of her subjects in accordance with the laws emanating from the monarch. The ideas of this policy were instilled by the European philosophy of the Enlightenment.

"Stacked Commission"(1767-1768). The commission was to consist of deputies elected on the basis of class, who received orders from their voters. The number of commission members is from 564 to 572.

Before convening the commission - "Order" “The order of Empress Catherine II given to the Commission on the drafting of a new Code.” In the “Order” of Catherine II: “The Sovereign is autocratic; for no other power, as soon as the power united in his person, can act similarly to the space of such a great state.” Freedom in the understanding of the empress “is the right to do what the laws allow.” The freedom of citizens is usually understood as the right of each class to enjoy the rights granted to it: the laws “allow” one thing for the nobles, and something completely different for the serfs.

1. General characteristics of the era of palace coups

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.

From 1725 after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them replaced the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky did not quite accurately, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".

2. Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged during the years of Peter thanks to their official zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it most often came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

At this time, the guard began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that its “beloved emperor” left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power,

3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only managed to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything...”. Opinion at the top about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Peter's Nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) spoke out for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards who supported the empress.

accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (SPC) created under the empress, to which the first three collegiums, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, led nowhere. Moreover, temporary worker planned to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the VTS. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, having alienated old allies and not gaining new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his entire family to Berezovoye, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting Menshikov’s personality in the eyes of the young emperor was played by Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the Military Technical Cooperation, the Tsar’s educator, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - a deft diplomat who knew how, depending on the balance of power and the political situation, to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families began to predominate (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to Peter II, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because With the death of Peter II, the Romanov male line was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

4. Supreme Privy Council (SPC)

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the Military Technical Council, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married by Peter to the Duke of Courland , was widowed early, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.

It was also extremely important that she had no supporters or any connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, luring her with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose her own conditions and obtain her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

D.M. Golitsyn took the initiative to compile really limiting autocracy " condition ", according to which:

1) Anna pledged to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which was actually turning into the highest governing body of the country.

2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, manage the treasury, declare war or make peace.

3) The Empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, or to deprive them of estates without a trial.

4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.

5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, and if any of these conditions were not fulfilled, she was deprived of the “Russian crown.”

There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the “rulers’ plot.” Some see in the “conditions” a desire to establish an “oligarchic” form of government instead of autocracy, which would meet the interests of a narrow layer of high-born nobility and lead Russia back to the era of “boyar self-will.” Others believe that this was the first constitutional project to limit the arbitrariness of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.

Anna Ioannovna after a meeting in Mitau with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without further hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their content became known to the guard and the general public." nobility ".

From this environment new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature belonged to Peru V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific demands were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes halfway and developed a new project that involved limiting autocracy to a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the VTS of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the House of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempt from compulsory service.

Supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guard, were able to take advantage of the disagreements between adherents of the constitutional limitation of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the “conditions” and restored autocracy in full.

The reasons for the failure of the “supreme leaders” were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of members of the military-technical cooperation, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the entire country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. Inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups, who were supporters of the constitutional order, but feared to strengthen the military-technical cooperation with their actions, also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political changes.

The final word belonged to the guard, which, after some hesitation, ultimately supported the idea of ​​an unlimited monarchy.

Finally, not the least role was played by the foresight and unprincipledness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party that supported the preservation of autocracy.

5. Reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of “conditions” from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating in its place a Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, by her decree, was equal to the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn, were repressed.

Gradually, Anna went to satisfy the most urgent demands of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Single Inheritance was cancelled, which limited the right of nobles to dispose of the estate when it was transferred by inheritance; making it easier to obtain an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet corps of nobles was created, upon completion of which an officer rank was awarded; It was allowed to enroll nobles in the service from infancy, which gave them the opportunity to receive an officer rank “based on length of service” upon reaching adulthood.

An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more callous during early widowhood... amidst court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, already 37 years old , brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rough entertainment".

Anna Ioannovna's amusements were very expensive for the treasury, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her courtyard cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch the jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation by “conditions”, especially since the Military-Technical Cooperation did not at one time allow her Kurland member to enter Russia favorite - E. Biron.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, or even the ability, to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironovshchina", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness towards the Russian nobility.

However, the government course was determined by Biron’s enemy - A. Osterman, and the arbitrariness was rather carried out by representatives of the domestic nobility, led by the head of the Secret Chancellery A.I. Ushakov. And the Russian nobles caused no less damage to the treasury than foreigners.

Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed a “Project for the Improvement of Internal State Affairs,” in which he advocated for the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he displeased Biron, who, teaming up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky charged with “insulting her imperial majesty” and bring him to the chopping block in 1740.

Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as successor Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, infant Ivan Antonovich under the regency of Biron.

In the face of general discontent among the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military college, Field Marshal Minich carried out another coup d'etat. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "The Russian state has the advantage over others that it is governed by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon miscalculated his own strength and ended up in retirement, letting Osterman take first place.

6. Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)

On November 25, 1741, the “daughter” of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guard, carried out another coup d’etat and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support from ordinary people of the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and the personality and actions began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike others, had a patriotic overtones, because was directed against the dominance of foreigners.

Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking to obtain political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chetardy and the Swedish ambassador Nolken ultimately turned out to be in vain. The coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth’s meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forced tonsure as a nun hung over the lover of balls and entertainment.

Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father’s policies, but she was hardly able to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor more in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began by restoring the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. Having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned to the Senate the significance of the highest state body, and restored the Berg and Manufactory Collegium.

The German favorites under Elizabeth were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova Moscow University was opened in 1755. On the initiative of his cousin, from the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued “on the abolition of internal customs and petty duties,” which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.

At the same time, its social policy was aimed at transformation of the nobility from the service class into the privileged class and the strengthening of serfdom. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the costs of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.

These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into “baptized property”, which could be sold without the slightest remorse, exchanged for a purebred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as “talking cattle” was caused and ended by that time a cultural split in Russian society, as a result of which Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landowners obtaining the right to sell their peasants as conscripts (1747), as well as to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).

In her domestic and foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna took national interests into account to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 brought the army of Frederick II to the brink of disaster.

In August 1757, at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, the Russian army S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved her first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a “draw” with Frederick’s army, and in August 1759 at Kunersdorf the troops of P.S. Saltykov was defeated.

In the fall of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin and only the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete disaster. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.

Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she, wittingly or unwittingly, prepared the country and society for the next era of transformation. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to “rest” and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which occurred in the era of Catherine II.

7. Reign of Peter III

Elizaveta Petrovna's nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and respect for everything German. By 1742 he found himself an orphan. Childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him as her heir. In 1745 he was married to a stranger and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (named Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy).

The heir had not yet outlived his childhood, continuing to play with tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and thirsted for love and power.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter antagonized the nobility and the guard with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guard to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he led.

At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed the manifesto “On the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility,” which freed nobles from compulsory service, abolished corporal punishment for them and turned them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigation Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church and monastic land ownership, and prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility. But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and the guard, created the preconditions for his overthrow. In preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, the thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.

8. Results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social, system of society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, interests. At the same time, the specific policies of each of the six monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

The era of palace coups begins in 1725 and ends in 1762. The first date is the death of Peter I (pay attention to the spelling, sometimes they mistakenly write “the death of Peter 1”, but emperors were always designated by Roman numerals). Because of his “Decree on Succession,” which arose due to the emperor’s large and serious conflict with his own son, the circle of possible heirs increased significantly. And now it became unclear who to give preference to - Catherine I or Peter II? A struggle broke out between the nobles, and the winner was often the one who managed to secure in time the opportunity to rely on bayonets in the literal sense of the word. That is, to the guard.

This period ends in 1762, when Empress Catherine II came to power with the active support of Count Vorontsov. At the same time, her legal husband Peter III, through whose marriage she received the right to the throne, was rumored to have been killed. However, the official version insisted that he had colic. In a word, Russia after Peter turned out to be torn apart by a struggle for power. So, the era of palace coups refers to a very specific period when power was established by force. And the ruler, by design, was chosen by a group of nobles. Please note that the assassination of Paul I does not belong here, although it can also be called a coup. But this event no longer has anything to do with the era: it was not connected with the actions of Peter I, it had completely different reasons, Alexander became the emperor, who should have been the ruler from the beginning.

For students of palace coups, the era often becomes a difficult topic. Therefore, if, for example, there is a test, it is best to first try to learn the dates in order to understand exactly how long this or that board occupied. At the same time, this will allow you to see the big picture. If it’s difficult to imagine everything, a table will definitely help you.

So, the reign of Catherine I did not last long, until 1727. She died of consumption, according to one source. She was brought to power by Menshinkov. Power was greatly limited by the Supreme Privy Council. Then Peter II was crowned, who relied on the Dolgorukys. The Council continued to act, since the ruler was still frankly small and had little interest in state affairs. But in 1730 he dies of smallpox. And Anna Ioannovna, who ruled until 1740, becomes the empress. At first she was supported by some of the nobles and guards, and at the end of her reign - by the Secret Chancellery.

Then, in 1740-1741, Anna Leopoldovna was in power as regent of Peter the Great’s grandnephew Ioann Antonovich. She was deprived of power because support here was minimal, she relied mainly on the German nobility, and the people and nobles of Russian origin were terribly tired of this over the previous decade.

In 1741, Elizabeth I, daughter of Peter I, ascended the throne. She enjoyed extensive support from the guards regiments. Ruled until 1761, when the throne passed to Peter III. But he lacked support, and as a result, in 1762, Catherine II began to rule, who had the throne until 1796. She died a natural death.

Actually, this is the era of palace coups in brief; it clearly shows how many problems one rash Decree can cause. On the other hand, it gave women the opportunity to take the throne, and the Elizabethan and Catherine (meaning Catherine II) periods turned out to be very favorable for the empire. And from this point of view, the results of the palace coups cannot be called purely negative. After all, if it were not for Peter I, they would not have had the opportunity to take the throne. And all the heirs in the male line did not inspire confidence.

The era of palace coups: reasons

The main reason was the “Decree” of Peter I, dedicated to the succession to the throne, and also the fact that it gave the monarch the opportunity, in fact, to transfer the throne at his discretion to almost anyone. In general, this is enough, but if the 10th grade takes the test, they may be asked to list several factors. And here it is necessary to clarify that we were talking about the struggle for power between the nobles, that the coup as such was their only way to somehow influence what was happening in the country. When choosing this or that ruler, each clan also determined its policy, the direction in which everyone would move. Thus, the 10th grade must understand: what is important is what everyone saw in each of the candidates.

When Menshikov nominated Catherine I, he did not perceive her as a monarch. She was a woman who was convenient for him in this position, rather quiet, and not particularly knowledgeable about managing government affairs. An excellent option for actually taking power into your own hands.

A similar category is Peter II, only for the Dolgorukys for a long time. The young emperor was too young, understood little about what was happening in the country, and was practically not interested in anything. And for a long time I did not notice how they really treated him. The nobility, who relied on obedient puppets, were fine with this.

A similar situation was with Anna Ioannovna, and she really did not have a strong spirit. True, here the nobles did not take into account one important fact: the empress had already found someone to listen to. And this person turned out to be not a Russian courtier, but Count Ernst Biron, who, in fact, received full power.

Anna Leopoldovna practically did not choose to know, so it is not surprising that she did not stay long. And the same thing with Peter III, who was not popular with anyone. The strongest support came first from Elizabeth I, and then from Catherine II, who gradually gained supporters. And they both died a natural death. By the way, the presentation can clearly show all this, demonstrate the existence of a relationship between the number of supporters, the balance of the policy and the years of government. This way you can find a cause-and-effect relationship if you wish.

Russian foreign policy in the era of palace coups

If you have a test coming up, need a presentation, or are expecting a test, this issue should not be ignored. As you might guess, foreign policy during the era of palace coups was rather sluggish, because everyone shared power. In addition, changes in political course began to be perceived with caution, since rulers changed too quickly, and the views of the new emperor or empress often turned out to be completely different from those of his predecessor. And it was not entirely clear whether they should be accepted or is it better to just wait a little until the next ruler?

Something has changed more or less seriously since the times of Peter the Great, except with the advent of Elizabeth I. Russia began to influence the balance of power in Europe, took over part of Prussia, and successfully participated in the Seven Years' War. In fact, Russia almost captured the Prussian king, but Peter II, who simply adored everything Prussian, intervened in the situation. As a result, he ordered all the conquered territories to be given back, which became the reason for the strongest dissatisfaction with him as emperor.

In general, the period of palace coups was named so for a reason. It is characterized by instability, and one of its results was a categorical ban on women occupying the throne of the Russian Empire. So if you have a test coming up, this point is also worth keeping in mind.

THE ERA OF PALACE COUPS IN THE 18TH CENTURY.

groups for power and the enthronement of their protege. Menshikov had the greatest influence at that time. It was he who in 1725 elevated Catherine 1 (the widow of Peter 1) to the throne. To strengthen power and her position, she established the Supreme Privy Council. It included many of Peter’s faithful associates (Apraksin, Tolstoy, Glitsin, and, of course, Menshikov). Until 1730, all important state affairs were decided by the Privy Council.

The Empress named Peter 2, the grandson of Peter the Great, who was 12 years old at that time, as her heir in her will. The Golitsins managed to win the sympathy of the young emperor. And, as a result, Menshikov and his entire family were exiled. The Supreme Privy Council included representatives of two more noble families - the Golitsins and Dolgorukys. The power of the Privy Council was further strengthened. In fact, it was he who ruled the country.

Peter 2 died early - from smallpox. And in 1730 Anna Ioannovna ascended the throne. Initially, she agreed with the demand of the Supreme Privy Council to limit her power and signed the corresponding papers. But, after accession to the throne, the “conditions” were torn, and the Supreme Privy Council was dissolved. Its members were subjected to repression. The country was ruled at this time by the German Biron, the favorite of the empress. The next decade was marked by the plunder of the country's treasury and the dominance of foreigners. Anna Ioannovna declared her sister's three-month-old grandson heir to the throne. Biron became his regent. Soon the regency passed to the baby's mother, Anna Leopoldovna. But she failed to stay in power for long. On the night of November 24-25, 1941, Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761), with the support of the guards, carried out a coup d'etat. The legitimate emperor was exiled to Siberia, as were influential foreigners (Minich, Osterman). At the age of 23, John was killed while trying to free himself. For some time, the country returned to the orders of Peter I. Customs duties were abolished, and the rights of the nobility were increased. Landowners received the right to sell their peasants as recruits.

In 1756, the Seven Years' War began. Russia, in alliance with Austria, Sweden and France, opposed Prussia. The 100,000-strong Russian army entered the war and was able to inflict a crushing defeat on the enemy. In 1758, Königsberg was taken, and in the main battle of Zorndorf, the army of Frederick 2 was virtually destroyed. But Prussia was saved by the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761.

Peter 3 (her nephew) sincerely admired Frederick and, having returned all the conquered lands to Prussia, he concluded peace and a military alliance with him. This, coupled with his disregard for Orthodox traditions and customs, led to dissatisfaction with his rule from all sectors of society. On the contrary, his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna (Sofia Frederika Augusta) became increasingly popular. Supported by the guards of the Semenovsky and Izmailovsky regiments, she seized power and forced her husband to sign a renunciation. Soon after this, Peter 3 was killed. Thus ended the era of palace coups, briefly described in this article. The country entered the golden age of Catherine's reign.

CATHERINE'S DOMESTIC POLICY 2. ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM

The reign of Catherine II is called the era of “enlightened absolutism.” The meaning of “enlightened absolutism” is the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in carrying out reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development). The idea of ​​a state with an enlightened monarch capable of transforming social life on new, reasonable principles became widespread in the 18th century.

The development and implementation of the principles of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia acquired the character of an integral state-political reform, during which a new state and legal image of the absolute monarchy was formed. At the same time, social and legal policy was characterized by class divisions: nobility, philistinism and peasantry. The domestic and foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century, prepared by the events of the previous reigns, was marked by important legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexations. This is due to the activities of major government and military figures: A.R. Vorontsova, P.A. Rumyantseva, A.G. Orlova, G.A. Potemkina, A.A. Bezborodko, A.V. Suvorova, F.F. Ushakov and others. Catherine II herself actively participated in public life. Love for Russia, its people and everything Russian was an essential motive for her activities. The policy of Catherine II was noble in its class orientation.

Catherine II imagined the tasks of the “enlightened monarch” as follows: “1. It is necessary to enlighten the nation that he must rule. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect to its neighbors."

Catherine really dreamed of a state capable of ensuring the well-being of its subjects. And, in my opinion, she successfully coped with this task. The belief in the omnipotence of the human mind, characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment, forced the queen to believe that all obstacles to this could be eliminated by passing good laws. Russian legislation was extremely confusing. Formally, the Council Code of 1649 was still in force, but over the past more than 100 years, many laws and decrees were issued, often inconsistent with each other. Although under Peter I, and then under his successors, attempts were made to create a new set of laws, but each time for one reason or another this was not possible.

Catherine took on this enormous task in a new way: she decided to convene elected representatives from the estates and instruct them to develop a new Code. For two years she worked on the program of her reign and proposed it in 1767 in the form of the “Nakaz”, in which for the first time in the history of Russia the principles of legal policy and legal system were formulated.

The “Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters, to which two more were later added, the chapters were divided into 655 articles, of which 294 were borrowed from C. Montesquieu’s treatise “On the Spirit of Laws”; 104 of the 108 articles in the tenth chapter are taken from C. Beccaria’s treatise “On Crimes and Punishments.” Nevertheless, “Nakaz” is an independent work that expressed the ideology of Russian “enlightened absolutism.”

The “Mandate” solemnly proclaimed that the purpose of power is not “to take away people’s natural freedom, but to direct their action to obtain the greatest good from everyone.” At the same time, Catherine prudently noted: “To introduce better laws, it is necessary to prepare people’s minds for this.” On this basis, she prescribed: “The sovereign is autocratic; for no other power, as soon as the power united in his person, can act in a similar way to the space of a great state.” Liberty, in Catherine’s understanding, meant “the right to do everything that the laws allow.” Freedom in her view was completely combined with unlimited autocracy. Thus, the empress’s views did not completely coincide with the ideas of Montesquieu, who dreamed of a limited, constitutional monarchy. Rather, they approached the views of those enlighteners (in particular Voltaire) who preferred absolutism, but with an enlightened monarch. A guarantee against the transformation of such a monarch into a despot should have been governing bodies standing between the people and the supreme power and acting on the basis of the rule of law. The idea was again borrowed from Montesquieu, but at the same time completely distorted. The French philosopher imagined these “intermediary powers” ​​to be relatively independent of the throne, but for Catherine they are created and act exclusively at the will of the monarch.

The empress spoke out much more decisively in favor of judicial reform. She rejected torture, allowed the death penalty only in exceptional cases, and proposed separating the judiciary from the executive. Following the humanists and educators, Catherine proclaimed: “It is much better to prevent crimes than to punish.”

However, all the discussions about freedom sounded rather strange in a country where a significant part of the population was in serfdom, in fact, slavery. Already in 1762, almost immediately after ascending the throne, the Empress issued a Manifesto, in which she unequivocally stated: “We intend to inviolably preserve the landowners with their estates and possessions, and maintain the peasants in due obedience to them.” Decrees of 1765 and 1767 further strengthened the dependence of serfs on their masters. And yet, Catherine saw in serfdom an “unbearable and cruel yoke,” “an intolerable situation for the human race,” fraught with serious upheavals for the state. True, she considered the “general liberation” untimely and dangerous, and in order to “prepare minds” for liberation, during the 34 years of her reign, the empress distributed about 800 thousand state-owned peasants of both sexes to generals, dignitaries and favorites, and extended serfdom to Ukraine. Its discussion also took place in the spirit of the “Order”. Even while working on it, Catherine showed her work to her associates and, under the influence of their comments, burned a good half of what she had written. However, the main discussion of this document was scheduled at a meeting of the special Commission for the codification of laws.

The commission began its work on July 30, 1767. The “Order” was listened to with admiration, some deputies even shed tears. Then it was decided to present the empress with the titles Great, Wise, Mother of the Fatherland. However, when on August 12, a delegation of deputies introduced themselves to Catherine for this purpose, the Empress said: “I answer: Great - I leave time and posterity to judge my affairs impartially, Wise - I cannot call myself such, for only God is wise, and Mother of the Fatherland - I honor the subjects entrusted to me by God as a duty of my title; to be loved by them is my desire.” However, it was from this moment that her contemporaries would call her “Great”.

Although the commission was later dissolved, it was still important, as its members introduced Catherine to the opinions and desires of Russian society. The Empress took advantage of this information when implementing major reforms affecting provincial institutions and estates. These actions of Catherine II once again prove that she strove for power, thinking more about the development of the state than about power as such.

Under Catherine, the judicial system completely changed. It was built on the class principle: each class had its own court. The nobles were tried by the upper zemstvo court in provincial towns and the district court in district towns. The townspeople are the provincial and city magistrates, respectively, the state peasants are the upper and lower judicial authorities. In the provinces, a conscientious court was created from representatives of the three classes, which performed the functions of a conciliation or arbitration authority. All these class courts were elected. A higher judicial authority was the judicial chambers created in the provinces - civil and criminal, the members of which were not elected, but appointed. The highest judicial body of the empire was the Senate. In an effort to create the most real guarantees of an enlightened monarchy, Catherine II began to work on granting letters to the nobility, cities and state peasants. Charters to the nobility and cities received legal force in 1785. The charter to the nobility secured for each hereditary nobleman freedom from compulsory service. They were also exempt from state taxes and corporal punishment. They retained the right of ownership of movable and immovable property (even if the owner was convicted, noble estates were not confiscated), as well as the right to be sued only by their peers (i.e., nobles), to trade, “to have factories and factories in the villages.” The noble society of each district and each province reserved for itself the right to meet periodically, elect class leaders, and have its own treasury. True, the empress did not forget to place the noble assemblies under the control of the governors general.

Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of culture and art in Russia. Under Catherine, the Russian Academy and the Free Economic Society were created, many magazines were founded, a public education system was created, the Hermitage was founded, public theaters were opened, Russian opera appeared, and painting flourished.

A number of events of the era of “enlightened absolutism” had progressive significance. For example, Moscow University, founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755, played a huge role in the development of education, Russian national science and culture, graduating a large number of specialists in various fields of knowledge. In 1757 The Academy of Arts began training.

The secularization of church land ownership significantly improved the situation of the former monastic peasants, who received arable land, meadows and other lands on which they had previously served corvée, and freed them from everyday punishment and torture, from service in the household and forced marriages.

During the reign of Catherine II, such masters as Vasily Lukich Borovikovsky, who gained fame with portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, and many nobles, created works, Dmitry Grigoryevich Levitsky, an academician in the 60s, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked with Lomonosov, painted the coronation portrait of Catherine II, which she really liked.

UPGACHEV'S UPRISING

Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev was born around 1742 in the village of Zimoveyskaya. His military service began in 1769. Pugachev had the opportunity to take part in the Seven Years' War, and later the Russian-Turkish War of 1768. During the latter, he was promoted to cornet. Then, due to illness, Emelyan wished to retire, but was refused.

After this event, the short biography of Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev takes a sharp turn. Having evaded service, he was forced to hide for a long time, posing as a merchant. But in 1772 he was arrested following a denunciation in Mozdok, where he lived among the Trans-Volga Old Believers. Sentenced to hard labor in Siberia. Having escaped in 1773, he went to the Yaitsky Cossacks, where, proclaiming himself Peter 3, he began preparing the Cossack uprising. His first detachment consisted of only 80 Cossacks. He approached a town on the Yaik River, but abandoning the assault due to the complete lack of artillery, he moved towards Orenburg. During the journey, the detachment increased noticeably, adding peasants, working people, Tatars, Kalmyks and other dissatisfied people. Orenburg was blockaded on October 5 (16), 1773. By that time, Pugachev’s detachment had at least 2.5 thousand people and 20 guns.

Rumors about the uprising of Emelyan Pugachev provoked unrest among the peasants of the Orenburg province. And the rebel camp was replenished with new volunteers, as well as weapons and food. The first punitive detachment under the command of General Kara was defeated. But Bibikov’s corps inflicted a serious defeat on Pugachev, depriving him of all his guns. Suffering losses, Pugachev retreated from Orenburg and took refuge in the Ural Mountains, where the preparation of a new army began.

Pugachev began his long-planned campaign against Moscow in June 1774. On July 12 (23), the rebels approached Kazan. But, having suffered defeat again and lost artillery, Pugachev was forced to cross to the right bank of the Volga. The appearance of the rebel army provoked a massive uprising of the peasants. The forces of the Pugachevites increased so much that the rebels began to pose a real threat to Moscow. Pugachev published a manifesto for the liberation of peasants from serfdom.

In 1774 the following were taken: Kurmysh (July 31), Alatyr (August 3), Saransk (August 7), Penza (August 13), Petrovsk (August 15), Saratov (August 17). However, the assault on Tsaritsyn was unsuccessful. The Don Cossacks and Kalmyks broke away from the army and Pugachev, pursued by Michelson’s corps, retreated to Black Yar. The rebels were defeated. Emelyan Pugachev fled to the Volga steppes.

The last major battle took place on August 25 (September 1) at the Solenikova gang. Betrayed by his comrades, Pugachev was captured and on September 15 (26), 1774, taken to the town on Yaik.

The trial of Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev took place in Moscow on January 8–10, 1775. The sentence of the Senate was approved by Empress Catherine II. Pugachev was executed in Moscow on Bolotnaya Square on January 10 (21), 1775. But the execution of Emelyan Pugachev did not erase him from the memory of the people.

FOREIGN POLICY OF CATHERINE 2

The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite successful. Thanks to the empress's successes in this area, Russia acquired unprecedented authority in Europe.

Immediately after her accession to the throne, Catherine terminated the military alliance with Prussia concluded by Peter III. Under Catherine, a new foreign policy course for Russia was formed, which was to act in accordance with its own interests, without being in constant dependence on other states.

Catherine had to decide three problems , left to her inheritance:

Return of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that remained part of Poland;

Ensuring the security of the southern outskirts of Russia and access to the Black Sea;

Strengthening Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

Matters with Courland and Poland were settled diplomatically, without war. The solution to the Black Sea problem required serious military efforts. The interests of Russia and Turkey collided not only in the Black Sea region, but also in Orthodox Moldova and in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, where a pro-Russian orientation has emerged in the ruling circles of Georgia and Armenia.

At the end 1768 Türkiye declared war on Russia. Military operations unfolded on three fronts: in the Crimea, on the Danube and in Transcaucasia, where Russian troops entered at the request of Georgia. The war with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty (1774), according to which significant territories were transferred to Russia. But in 1787 The second Russian-Turkish war began. In it A.V. showed his leadership talents. Suvorov. The war ended with a Russian victory in 1791

While the Russian-Turkish war was going on, Austria and Prussia, without Russian participation, began dividing Poland. Under these conditions, Russia, which benefited from a united but dependent Poland, was forced to engage in negotiations on the division of this country. As a result of an agreement between the three states, Poland ceased to exist as an independent state, after three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795) its entire territory was divided between Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia.

RUSSIAN CULTURE 18 CENTURY

Petrine reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment has advanced greatly, which had a great influence on the further development of culture. On January 1, 1700, a new calendar was introduced - from the Nativity of Christ. In 1719, the first natural history museum in Russia was created - the Kunstkamera. Under Peter 1, education became a state policy, since educated people were needed to implement reforms. Under Peter 1, general and special schools were opened, and conditions were prepared for the founding of the Academy of Sciences. In 1701, the Navigation School was opened in Moscow - the first secular state educational institution, and a number of professional schools were created - Artillery, Engineering, and Medicine. In the first quarter of the 18th century. digital schools, parochial schools, and theological seminaries began to open. The organization of secondary and higher education is closely related to the creation of the Academy of Sciences (1724). It included the Academy, University and Gymnasium. Mikhail Lomonosov became the first Russian academician. In 1755, on the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov, Moscow University was created, which became a major cultural center. The newspaper "Moscow News" was published in the printing house organized under him. Vocational and artistic educational institutions appeared. In St. Petersburg there is a Dance School, in Moscow there is a Ballet School and the Academy of Arts. Typography. Book publishing has increased significantly. In 1708, a reform of the type was carried out, the civil and civil press were introduced, which contributed to the increase in secular and civil books and magazines. Libraries were organized and bookstores were opened. Literature. Widespread book publishing activity greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil language contributed to the strengthening of the secular language. At this time, poetic works were very popular - odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator Antioch Cantemir (1708-1744). The poet V.K. Trediakovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification. The founder of Russian drama was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables. The ideas of Russian classicism were reflected in the works of these writers. The last quarter of the 18th century. became the heyday of the work of the great poet G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). The main genre of his works was ode. Russian morals and customs were expressed in his social comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizin. His comedies laid the foundation for the accusatory-realistic trend in literature. The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), author of the stories “Poor Liza”, “Village”, etc. Karamzin’s main work is “History of the Russian State”. Architecture. In the Peter the Great era, innovations were introduced into architecture and construction, driven by the government's demands to express the strength, power and greatness of the Russian Empire in architectural structures. With the political and economic development of countries, demands are placed on civil engineering. The most notable buildings of that time in Moscow were the Bolshoi Kamenny Bridge, the Arsenal in the Kremlin, etc. In 1749, Ukhtomsky organized the first architectural school in Russia in Moscow, in which V.P. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov studied under his leadership. The Peter the Great era is characterized by the construction of a new capital - St. Petersburg (from 1703), for which foreign architects Trezzini and Rastrelli were invited. The new capital was conceived as a regular city, with long radial avenues, with urban ensembles of blocks and streets, squares. Trezzini acted as the author of residential buildings of three categories: for “eminent” citizens - stone ones, for “prosperous” and “ordinary” people - mud huts. Trezzini's public buildings were distinguished by their simplicity of style - the building of the Twelve Colleges (now the University). The most significant building was the Peter and Paul Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress. Among the public buildings, Gostiny Dvor, the Exchange, and the Admiralty stood out. At the same time as St. Petersburg, country palaces with famous park ensembles were built - Peterhof and others. The activities of father and son Rastrelli made a huge contribution to the Russian Baroque style. My father (an Italian sculptor) participated in the decoration of Peterhof. The son (already a Russian architect) was the author of the Smolny Monastery and the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof, the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, etc. Russian Baroque in architecture was replaced in the 60s by Russian classicism, which reached its peak in the early 19th century Representatives of classicism in Russia were architects V.P. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov and I.E. Starov. Bazhenov and Kazakov worked in Moscow and St. Petersburg - the palace and park ensemble in Tsaritsyno, the Senate in the Moscow Kremlin, the Assembly of the Nobility with the magnificent Hall of Columns, and Mikhailovsky Castle. Starov is the author of the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra of the Tauride Palace - a monument to the victory in the Russian-Turkish war. The main value of classicism is the ensemble, the organization of the ensemble: strict symmetry, straight lines, straight rows of columns. A striking example is Palace Square by architect K.I. Rossi. Preserved buildings from the 18th century. and today they are not only a decoration of Russian cities, but also masterpieces of world significance. Art. This is the heyday of portraiture. The most famous artists of Peter the Great's time are Andrei Matveev (1701-1739) and Ivan Nikitin (1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. By the end of the 20s, there was a turning point towards the court direction of painting. The best portrait painters of the 18th century are A.P.Antropov, F.S.Rokotov, D.T.Levitsky, V.L.Borovikovsky. The classical direction in sculpture was represented by Fyodor Shubin and Mikhail Kozlovsky. At the end of the 18th century. One of the richest art collections in the world is being formed - the Hermitage. It is based on a private collection of paintings by Catherine II. In the 18th century. The development of the theater continued. New theaters were opened, performances were staged based on plays by Russian authors - Sumarokov, Fonvizin. Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers during intermissions of dramatic and opera performances. In 1741, by decree of Peter's daughter Elizabeth, a Russian ballet troupe was established. The serf theater also continued to develop. The history of the theater includes the names of serf actors Praskovya Zhemchugova, Mikhail Shchepkin and others. In the 18th century, the theater gained enormous popularity and became the property of the masses. Music. In the 18th century Secular musical art begins to spread. A Philharmonic Society is created, in which ancient and classical music is performed, a school of composers is formed, Russian composers appear - authors of opera and chamber music. Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The leading opera composer of that time was D.S. Bortnyansky, the author of about 200 works. At the end of the century, the genre of chamber lyrical song appeared - Russian romance based on poems by Russian poets. Results of historical and cultural development of the 18th century. very significant. The development of Russian national traditions in all forms of art continued. At the same time, strengthening ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence into Russian culture. All areas of culture - education, printing, literature, architecture, fine arts - have been developed. New literary magazines, fiction, public theater, and secular music appeared. The formation of Russian classicism is underway. Development of culture in the 18th century. prepared the brilliant flowering of Russian culture in the 19th century, which became an integral part of world culture.